Development of Mausoleum Tourism Resources
"burial" refers to the way to dispose of the remains of the deceased, and "tomb" refers to the place where coffins are buried. In the early days of primitive society, human beings did not bury the bodies of the same kind, but abandoned them in the wilderness. From about the middle of the Paleolithic Age, human beings began to bury the remains of the dead, on the one hand, out of concern for the collective members and attachment to the dead relatives; On the other hand, it is due to the emergence of the concept of immortality of the soul and the emergence of primitive religion. On the basis of reverence for the soul and fantasy of life in the underworld, people gradually formed the worship of the dead. So the body of the deceased was treated to please the soul of the deceased, which resulted in various burial methods. According to archaeological excavations, primitive people buried the dead in a certain way in the late Paleolithic period about 18, years ago.
In the Neolithic Age, people's religious concept was further deepened, and people paid more and more attention to the burial of the dead, and tombs began to have a clear system, that is, from cave cemeteries in the Paleolithic Age to outdoor clan cemeteries. Most of the more than 2, Yangshao cultural tombs located in the Yellow River valley are buried in earth pits, and their layout is similar to the villages where people lived at that time. And many male * * * cemetery bones head in one direction.
In the Central Plains, which first entered the class society, the main burial form was the vertical hole tomb with earth pits, but until the early years of the Western Zhou Dynasty, there were no obvious graves on the ground of the cemetery. "The omen of literature and martial arts is flush with the ground", which refers to the area of the cemetery. The tomb of the Western Zhou Dynasty is flush with the ground, and there is no sign on it, which is the way of "not sealing or planting trees" mentioned in Yi Ci, that is, the cemetery can't afford graves and trees.
In the Spring and Autumn Period, grave-mound tombs began to appear in the Central Plains. After the appearance of mound graves, they quickly became popular, and the cemetery changed from "not sealing trees" to "sealing trees" and "sealing big trees". The height of the graves and the number of trees in the graves became a sign indicating the identity of the deceased. After the appearance of the mound, there is a corresponding difference between the word meaning of the grave and the tomb: "the tomb" is the place where the coffin is buried underground, and "the grave" is the seal on the tomb.
second, the ground building of the tomb
1. The tomb is sealed
Since the appearance of the tomb in the Spring and Autumn Period, the tomb is not only a symbol of the tomb, but also a symbol of status and identity. The scale of land closure of imperial tombs is grand, and it is called "Mausoleum" or "Mountain Mausoleum", which has mainly gone through three stages.
(1) Square-shaped enclosure
During the Warring States Period, the enclosure of tombs was square-shaped, so by the Qin and Han Dynasties, the enclosure of emperors' tombs was mostly square-shaped, that is, the mausoleum was located above the underground palace, rammed to a certain height with loess layers, and the top was square or rectangular flat-topped, which was called square-shaped. The whole mound is like a square cone with the top cut off, just like an inverted bucket, so it is also called "overlapping bucket shape".
(2) The mausoleum is shaped by mountains
The Mausoleum of Emperor Wen of Han Dynasty is the first imperial mausoleum with mountains as its mausoleum in history, but its customization began in the Tang Dynasty. Compared with the "square-top" earth-sealed mausoleum, the use of mountain peaks as the tomb of the emperor's mausoleum is more tall, spectacular, firm and lasting, thus fully embodying the supremacy and majesty of imperial power. Since Emperor Taizong Li Shimin built Zhaoling with Jiujun Mountain as the mausoleum, it has become an established system of the mausoleum in Tang Dynasty and an important form of the mausoleum in China.
(3) Baocheng Baodingxing
Since the Five Dynasties, the tombs of rulers of some remote small countries in the south have been sealed in the form of domes, such as the Yongling Mausoleum of Wang Jian in the former Shu Dynasty. This is mainly because it is wet and rainy in the south, and it is difficult to keep the original shape of the soil seal. In order to prevent the mound from being washed away by rain, people build a dome-shaped grave and enclose it with stones. Zhu Yuanzhang, the founding emperor of the Ming Dynasty, formally adopted this model when he built the Xiaoling Mausoleum, and the mausoleum was sealed and evolved into a "treasure city treasure top" shape. Building a round brick city on the underground palace is called "Treasure City", and filling the brick city to form a dome higher than the city wall is called "Treasure Top". In front of Baocheng, there is a prominent square platform with a building on it, which is the "Square City Building". The Ming and Qing Tombs were basically shaped like this.
2. cemetery layout and sacrificial architecture
"Mausoleum" is the tomb of the emperor, "Bedroom" is the living place of the emperor's soul, and "Temple" is the place of sacrifice and worship, and the trinity * * * forms the mausoleum.
(1) In the pre-Qin period,
cemeteries may have appeared in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. In the early cemetery, some used natural gullies and cliffs as barriers, and most of them dug trenches or rammed walls around the mausoleum. There is a gate on one side of the cemetery, and there are no other ancillary buildings in the park except the mausoleum. Sacrifice is mainly held in the ancestral temple. By the time of the Shang Dynasty, the royal family had its own mausoleum area, in front of which there were platform-based buildings, which might belong to the nature of "sleeping", and there were also temples and altars dedicated to ancestors. It shows that the "mausoleum", "bedroom" and "temple", which are the elements of the mausoleum, began to be bred in the Yin and Shang Dynasties. However, the real "mausoleum" appeared in the middle of the Warring States Period. The Zhaoyu Map unearthed from the tomb of King Zhongshan in Pingshan County, Hebei Province shows that the layout of the cemetery is rectangular, surrounded by two internal and external walls. The mausoleum is located in the middle of the cemetery, and five halls, namely bedrooms, are built on the top of the tomb, the external sides and the rear wing.
(2) Qin and Han Dynasties
Qin Shihuang unified the six countries and further improved the mausoleum system. The layout of the cemetery not only inherits the mausoleum system of Qin State, but also absorbs the mausoleum practices of other six countries. The cemetery generally imitates the planning and layout of the capital palace, fully embodying the supremacy of imperial power. The cemetery faces east from west. There are two walls inside and outside, and the tall square-shaped enclosure is located in the middle of the inner city. The northern part of the enclosure is the sleeping hall and the toilet hall.
the western Han dynasty inherited and developed the mausoleum system of the Qin dynasty. The cemeteries all sit west to east, with a square plane and only one garden wall. The mausoleum lives in the center of the cemetery. The burial area is in the east of the cemetery, on both sides of Sima Shinto. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the cemetery has not built a wall, and the mausoleum has changed to face south. Instead of setting up a temple in the mausoleum, a "stone hall" has been built in front of the mausoleum for regular worship and sacrifice. At the same time, Shinto was built in front of the mausoleum, with paired stone statues and horses on both sides of Shinto. The practice of building a memorial hall in front of the mausoleum and placing stone statues on both sides of Shinto, which was initiated in the Eastern Han Dynasty, was followed and developed by the tombs of later dynasties.
(3) Tang and Song Dynasties
The scale of the tombs in the Tang Dynasty not only exceeded that of the previous generation, but also was more carefully laid out. The layout of the cemetery imitates the regulations of Chang 'an City, all of which face south and are divided into three walls. The whole cemetery is divided into three parts from front to back: the first part is a mausoleum and a sacrificial building, the north is sealed with soil, and the front is a shrine (also known as Shanggong), which is a place for worship and sacrifice. The sleeping hall for the soul and the lower palace for the imperial secretary and officials are outside the cemetery. The second part is Que and Shinto, and there are stone carvings such as stone man and stone horse on both sides of Shinto. The third part is the buried tombs on both sides in front of the cemetery. The layout of the whole cemetery takes the south gate as the main entrance, the north and south as the central axis, and the east and west are symmetrical, which embodies the design idea of facing south and facing north.
the imperial tombs in the northern song dynasty were restored and sealed, and the cemetery layout basically followed the system of the Tang dynasty. But it is completely different from the past dynasties that the cemetery is facing the mountains and the back of the water. Because the idea of geomantic omen prevailed in the Northern Song Dynasty at that time, the surname Zhao was short of water in the five-tone corner, and the auspicious side wanted mountains and high waters, so the mausoleum site should be chosen in the place of "the dome in the southeast and the heavy land in the northwest", and the system of commanding the mausoleum in the past dynasties, leaning against the mountain and facing the river, and setting the mausoleum in Gaofu was changed. Instead, the mausoleum platform was located in the lowest terrain, facing the mountain and facing the water, and all the tombs were facing the main peak of Songshan Mountain with few rooms. After the death of the emperors in the Southern Song Dynasty, they hoped to be buried in the Central Plains. There were no mausoleum platforms and stone carvings in all the tombs, which were called the Zang Palace. In the Yuan Dynasty, the burial custom of the Mongolian people was followed, and no graves could be built. After the burial, the horses were trampled to the ground and no cemetery was set up. The mausoleum of Genghis Khan, located in Ejinhoro Banner, Inner Mongolia, is a memorial mausoleum based on the "Eight White Rooms" dedicated to Genghis Khan's tomb.
(4) Ming and Qing Dynasties
The layout of Ming and Qing cemeteries was influenced by the palace buildings at that time. Although it inherited the shape of Tang and Song Dynasties, it abandoned the pattern of separating the upper and lower palaces and assembled all kinds of buildings on a central axis in the north-south direction. The cemetery was changed from a square to a rectangular plane. The mausoleum and the offering hall are separated by walls. The front part consists of a pavilion of steles, a kitchen of gods and a library of gods, and the second part consists of a memorial hall. In order to highlight the function of worship and sacrifice, the Xiagong building was abolished, and the old system of residence and service of imperial palace officials in previous dynasties was abolished. The back of the cemetery is a mausoleum, and the land is sealed in the shape of a treasure city and a treasure top. The whole cemetery fully embodies the palace architectural model of front facing and back sleeping.
3. Tomb and burial utensils
1. Tomb
(1) Vertical-point tombs and horizontal-point tombs
Graves are also called tombs, which can be divided into vertical-point tombs and horizontal-point tombs according to the way of excavation. The vertical cave tomb is a soil pit dug down from the ground, and the horizontal cave tomb is a soil cavern dug to a certain depth and then dug horizontally. The Ba Ling of Emperor Wen of Han Dynasty is a typical example.
(2) Masonry Tomb
During the Warring States Period, there appeared a tomb built of hollow bricks, which was very popular in the late Western Han Dynasty, among which the tomb with a rolled roof brick room was the most common. In the Western Han Dynasty, there was also a tomb with stone structure, which was made of mixed masonry. The content of carving and painting on brick and stone reliefs in Han Dynasty mainly shows the life of the tomb owner before his death, which fully reflects the social life style at that time.
(3) Courtyard-style tombs
The ruling class in the Tang Dynasty pursued "tombs like real houses" more, and the catacombs extended along the axis, which were the sloping tombs, tunnels and patios, front and rear tunnels, front and rear burial chambers and small niches in turn. The layout of multiple holes and patios is like multiple courtyards in real life. The front and rear burial chambers show the idea that the front is the hall and the back is the room, and also reflect the hierarchical status of the deceased. This kind of tombs are painted with a large number of murals in the tombs and patios.
(4) Wood-like tombs
On the basis of inheriting the masonry tombs and courtyard tombs of the previous dynasty, the Song Dynasty began to develop towards wood-like tombs. On the four walls and the top of the tomb, wood-like architectural forms were used to make leaning columns, silhouettes, bucket arches, stigmas, caissons and other components, with lifelike doors and windows, complete bucket arches and carved beams and painted buildings.
2. Coffin system
A coffin is a burial utensil for holding the remains of the deceased. "Coffin" is a tool for collecting corpses; "Guo" is a box that is set outside or around the coffin. In Shuowen, there is a note: "Those who are wooden are made of wood, and they are surrounded by coffins, like the land with Guo." The development of coffins embodies the strict feudal hierarchy.
(1) Coffins
Most of the earliest coffins found at present are made of tile or stone. The urn coffin burial at Banpo Cultural Site in Xi 'an was made of clay pots for children more than 5, ~ 6, years ago, and sarcophagus was found in the tombs of Hongshan Culture, Liaoning. Wooden coffins appeared in Neolithic period, but they were widely used after Shang Dynasty.
(2) The coffin
The coffin is an additional layer outside the coffin or coffin set, which is used to protect the coffin in the earth cave, and the space formed between the coffins is used to place funerary objects. The burial chamber of the tomb of Zeng Houyi is 3.1 ~ 3.5m high, and 3171 long pieces of wood and 38m3 of wood are used. The most typical example of the exquisite production of the coffin chamber is the "yellow sausage puzzle". The so-called "yellow sausage" means that all the wood used to make the coffin is made of the turmeric wood core of cypress, and the "puzzle" means that the cypress wood is tiled around, and the wood faces inward and is perpendicular to the wall of the coffin chamber on the same side. This kind of burial room system was widely adopted by emperors before the mid-Western Han Dynasty. After the Han Dynasty, the tomb built with hollow bricks played a role in protecting the coffin, thus replacing the former coffin, and the original coffin system quickly died out. Therefore, future generations usually call the outermost layer of the coffin a coffin.
3. funerary objects
(1) pottery
in the late Neolithic period, the popularity of pottery production made pottery the main funerary objects, including all kinds of daily necessities, production utensils, weapons and decorations, which were mostly used by the deceased before his death. During the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties, pottery ritual vessels also appeared in the funerary objects.
(2) Bronze wares
During the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, the production technology of bronze wares was developed and widely used by the upper classes of society. Moreover, bronze ritual vessels have become a symbol of aristocratic status and status, so most noble tombs are buried with bronze ritual vessels. Bronze ritual vessels mainly include wine vessels, food vessels, musical instruments, weapons, chariots and horses, tools, etc., and are equipped in complete sets. There are more than 21 bronze ritual vessels unearthed in the tomb of Fu Hao in Yinxu, Anyang. The complete set of bronze sacrificial vessels in the tomb of Zeng Houyi weighs 1to the Qin bronze chariots and horses, which are exquisite in production, complex in structure, exquisite in skill and accurate in proportion, and are called "the crown of bronzes".
(3) Silk products
China is a big country with developed silk industry, and silk products play an important role in funerary objects, but they are rarely preserved so far because of their difficulty in preservation. During the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, silk and linen fabrics were already buried with them. Silk products unearthed from the tombs of the Han Dynasty include silk, yarn, silk, silk, brocade and so on. A plain yarn Zen dress unearthed from the tomb of the Western Han Dynasty in Mawangdui weighs less than 5g.
(4) Jade
The ancients thought that "a gentleman is better than jade" and "a gentleman never leaves his body without a reason", so jade burial became an important ritual jade, which appeared as early as in Neolithic tombs. "Jade is immortal when it is used in nine orifices", and it is believed that jade can prevent decay when applied to a corpse. In the early Neolithic period, jade pieces became exquisite earrings worn by the deceased. In the late Liangzhu culture, a large number of jade articles were unearthed in almost every tomb, surrounded by jade tablets, with jade bi and jade Xuan Ji in the middle, forming a "jade burial". There are 755 pieces of jade unearthed from the tomb of Fu Hao in Yin Shang Dynasty, including ritual vessels such as Yan, Bi, Huan, Huang and Hu, as well as jade weapons, utensils and ornaments. The Warring States period was the most glorious period of jade development, and a large number of jade articles were unearthed from the tomb of Zeng Houyi and the tomb of Zhongshan.
(5) Ming wares
The so-called Ming wares, also known as funerary wares and ghost wares, are all kinds of utensils specially made for burying the dead. Most of the raw materials used are pottery, porcelain, bamboo, wood and stone, and the imitations are ritual vessels, weapons and tools, models of cars, boats, warehouses, wells, houses, courtyards and fences, and people and animals, which are widely seen in the world. Figurines are a kind of funerary wares, and the most representative one is the Terracotta Warriors and Horses of Qin Shihuang. They are the same size as real people and horses, arranged in an army array, and the scale is huge, and the production has reached the peak of the discovered pottery figurines in previous dynasties. Low-temperature glazed pottery "Tang Sancai" was widely used in the burial of tombs in the Tang Dynasty, and various types of tri-colored figurines with complete division of labor appeared, including town tomb animal figurines, ceremonial figurines, music and dance figurines and so on, which became a typical representative of the prosperous Tang culture. After the Northern Song Dynasty, paper-bound funerary wares became popular, but they were not buried with the deceased but burned at or after burial.
4. Stone Carvings in Tombs
1. Stone Statue Students
In ancient tombs, especially in front of the tombs of emperors, governors and bureaucrats, stone carvers, animals and legendary monsters were arranged neatly, which was called "Stone Statue Students". The function is to mark the tomb and exorcise evil spirits, to show the identity level of the tomb owner, to guard the tomb and to commend the tomb owner for his meritorious service. The earliest stone carving of the tomb is the stone statue of Huo Qubing, the general of the Western Han Dynasty. There are 44 stone statues of Huo Qubing, which are carved with giant stones, and the most representative is the Xiongnu. The stone statue students of the imperial mausoleum formed a custom from Tang Ganling.
2. Tombstone
The title of "monument" appeared in the pre-Qin period, but the function of the monument at that time was different from that of later tombstones. It is a big stone slab with a round hole in the middle of the upper end. The round hole is called "wear" and stands next to the grave. It is used to wear a rope and slowly put the coffin into the grave. Or stand at the door of a doctor or secretary to tie livestock; Or stand in the palace temple to measure the shadow of the sun and record the time. There is no text on the slate.
Around the late Western Han Dynasty, people began to carve words on the stone tablets that were originally erected beside the tomb to guide coffins, recording the surname, family background, date of birth and death, life stories, and poems praising and mourning the tomb owner. The shape gradually becomes regular from ordinary stones, forming a custom-made monument consisting of three parts: the head, the body and the pedestal, and becoming a real tombstone. Early tombstones are still worn, with the top pointed in a square shape called Guishou, and the circular arc engraved with clouds and gas patterns called Halo. As a result, tombstones become an integral part of funeral culture, which is not only a symbol of the status level of the deceased,