Seek the review materials of geography, biology, history and physics in the second volume of the eighth grade People's Education Edition.

I. Plant reproduction

1. The significance of asexual reproduction: a reproductive mode in which bisexual germ cells (sperm and eggs) combine to form fertilized eggs, and fertilized eggs develop into new individuals.

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(1) Cutting: Cut off the stems, leaves, roots and buds (cuttings) of some plants, or insert them into soil and sand, or soak them in water, and then plant them after taking root, so as to make them become independent new plants. Sweet potatoes, grapes, chrysanthemums and roses are usually planted by cutting.

⑵ Grafting: Grafting the bud or branch (scion) of one plant to another plant (rootstock) to make the two parts grow together into a complete plant. When grafting, the scion should be closely combined with the cambium of rootstock to ensure the survival of the scion. Many fruit trees, such as apples, pears and peaches, are cultivated by grafting.

⑶ Plant tissue culture: plant tissue → callus formation → clustered buds → rooting → transplanting survival. It can not only obtain a large number of plants of the same species in a short time, but also prevent the invasion of plant viruses.

3. Will judge the difference between sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction:

Reproduction, also known as reproduction, is a phenomenon of biological reproduction and one of the basic characteristics of life. Reproductive modes can be divided into two categories, namely asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction is a reproductive mode in which the mother directly produces a new individual, without the combination of bisexual germ cells. Sexual reproduction is a reproductive mode in which bisexual germ cells (sperm and eggs) combine to form fertilized eggs, and the fertilized eggs develop into new individuals.

Second, the reproduction and development of insects.

1. procedure

Abnormal development: In the process of developing from fertilized eggs to new individuals, the morphological structure and living habits of larvae and adults are very different.

2. Features: Sexual reproduction, in vivo fertilization and oviposition.

3. Complete metamorphosis: fertilized egg → larva → pupa → adult (such as silkworm, bee, cabbage caterpillar, fly, mosquito).

4. Incomplete metamorphosis: fertilized egg → nymph → adult (such as locust, cricket, mole cricket, mantis)

The morphological structure and life habits of the larvae hatched from fertilized eggs are similar to those of adults, but they are smaller in size, with immature reproductive organs and only wing buds that can jump. This larva is called nymph. After molting for five times, the nymph develops into a winged and flying adult without going through the pupal stage.

5. The best time to control pests: larval stage.

Third, the reproduction and development of amphibians.

1. The concept of amphibians: an animal whose larvae live in water and breathe through gills. Adults live on land and can also live in water, as long as they breathe through their lungs and help them breathe through their skin.

2. Behavior: the male frog chirps → the male and female frogs embrace each other →…… → the adult frog.

3. Reproductive characteristics: sexual reproduction, in vitro fertilization and oviposition.

Breeding and larval development must be carried out in water, and larvae can only live on land after metamorphosis. This is one of the important reasons for the small distribution range and few species of amphibians. )

4. Species: frog, toad, giant salamander, salamander, etc.

Four. Breeding and development of birds

1. Structure of bird eggs: yolk is the main nutritional part of egg cells; The blastoderm contains the nucleus; The egg white outside the yolk contains nutrients and water needed for embryonic development; Eggshell and eggshell membrane play a protective role.

2. The behavior of bird breeding process: courtship → mating → nesting → spawning → hatching → brooding.

Verb (abbreviation for verb) Inheritance and variation of organisms.

1. gene: DNA fragment with genetic effect. It is the basic unit that determines biological characteristics.

2. Traits: morphological and structural characteristics, physiological characteristics (such as ABO blood type of human beings), behaviors (such as various congenital behaviors), etc.

3. Dominant shape: parents with relative traits cross, and the parental traits shown in the first generation of cross.

4. Recessive traits: parental traits that are not shown in the first generation of hybrids when parents cross with relative traits.

5. Relative traits: different manifestations of the same trait of the same species. For example, round and wrinkled peas, red and yellow tomato fruits, white and black rabbit hair, rose-crowned and single-crowned chickens, people with straight and curly hair, and people with type A and B blood.

6. Sex chromosomes: chromosomes related to sex determination. The male is XY and the female is XX.

7. Equal opportunities for boys and girls.

8. Variation characteristics: The differences between different species and individuals are firstly determined by the differences in genetic material basis, and secondly related to the environment. However, the variation caused by the environment alone will not be passed on to future generations if it does not affect the genetic material genes.

Six, biological evolution

1. The origin of life:

Inorganic small molecular substance

Birthplace: primitive atmosphere

Organic small molecule substance

Location of formation: primitive ocean

Organic polymer substance

Location of formation: primitive ocean

Multi-molecular substance

The place of change: the primitive ocean

Features: primitive boundary film and primitive material exchange.

Primitive life

2. Miller Experiment: An experiment to simulate the chemical evolution process of the origin of life through lightning in the reducing atmosphere of the primitive earth. (For details, please refer to page 48, Grade 8, Volume II of Biology)

3. The course of biological evolution: The general trend of biological evolution is from simple to complex, from low to advanced, from aquatic to terrestrial.

Overpropagation (phenomenon) → survival competition (process) → genetic variation (basis) → survival of the fittest (result).

4. Evidence of evolution: fossils.

5. The reason of evolution: The creatures in nature, through fierce competition for survival, the fittest survive and the unsuitable are eliminated, which is natural selection. Organisms continue to evolve through heredity, variation and natural selection.

6. Natural selection: In the long process of evolution, both new biological species appear and some biological species become extinct. In the process of evolution, various organisms have formed their own morphological structures and living habits that adapt to the environment. This process is called natural selection.

Seven, a healthy life

1. The concept of infectious diseases: diseases caused by pathogens can spread between people or between people and animals. Common infectious diseases include respiratory infectious diseases, digestive infectious diseases, blood infectious diseases and contact infectious diseases.

2. The characteristics of infectious diseases: it must go through three links: the source of infection, the route of transmission and the susceptible population.

3. Measures to prevent infectious diseases: protect susceptible people, cut off the route of transmission and control the source of infection.

4. Source of infection: people or animals that can spread pathogens.

5. Pathogen: bacteria, viruses, parasites and other organisms that cause infectious diseases.

6. Transmission route: the way for pathogens to leave the source of infection and reach healthy people. Such as: air transmission, food transmission, biological media transmission.

7. Susceptible population: people who lack immunity to infectious diseases and are susceptible to the disease.

8. Immunization:

9. Three lines of defense for human immunity:

First, skin and mucous membrane blocks, disinfection, cleaning

Human immunity II. Sterile substances in body fluids dissolve nonspecific immunity/innate immunity.

(men's three lines of defense) devouring sperm.

Thirdly, immune cells (lymphocytes) produce antibody-specific immunity/acquired immunity.

Immune organs (thymus, lymph nodes and spleen)

10. Immune function: eliminate aging, dead and damaged cells in the body; Resist the invasion of antigens and prevent the occurrence of diseases; Monitor, identify and eliminate abnormal cells produced in the body.

1 1. Planned immunization is a simple and feasible means to prevent infectious diseases, which is of great significance to protect children's health and life, improve the quality of the population and benefit future generations.

Eight, medication and first aid, know yourself to improve health.

1. Safe medication

⑴ Safe drug use: According to the needs of diseases, the variety, dosage and taking time of drugs are just right, giving full play to the best effect of drugs, and trying to avoid adverse reactions or harm caused by drugs to human body.

⑵ Prescription drugs: drugs that can only be purchased by licensed doctors or licensed assistant doctors and taken according to the doctor's advice.

⑶ OTC drugs: drugs that can be purchased without a doctor's prescription and taken according to the attached instructions.

⑷ Whether it is a prescription drug or an over-the-counter drug, you should read the instructions carefully before using it, so as to know the main components, indications, usage and dosage, drug specifications, precautions, production date and expiration date of the drug.

2. First aid measures

(1) Call 120 or 999 emergency number. Pay attention to the name, first aid location, contact information, current patient condition and first aid measures.

(2) Artificial respiration, chest compressions, bandaging and hemostasis, etc. (For details, please refer to P82-86, Volume II of Grade 8 Biology)

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Geography:

Chapter I Vast Territory

1. From the eastern and western hemispheres, she is located in the eastern hemisphere, and from the northern and southern hemispheres, she is located in the northern hemisphere.

Judging from the location of the mainland and the ocean, she is located on the west coast of the Pacific Ocean in eastern Asia.

3. From the latitude position, most of them are located in the mid-latitude area, belonging to the north temperate zone, and a few in the south are located in the tropics, with no frigid zone.

China has a land area of about 9.6 million square kilometers, ranking third in the world, next only to Russian and Canadian.

5. China has a land border of more than 20,000 kilometers, with 15 neighboring countries.

6. The coastline of Chinese mainland is over 0/8,000 kilometers long, and six countries, namely Japan, South Korea, Philippines, Brunei, Malaysia and Indonesia, are across the sea from China.

7. From north to south, the endangered seas in China are Bohai Sea, Yellow Sea, East China Sea and South China Sea.

8. There are Yanchang Yantian, the largest Yantian in China, in the Bohai Sea, and Zhoushan Fishing Ground, the largest fishing ground in China, in the East China Sea.

9. The administrative regions of the country are basically divided into three levels: province, county and township.

10, China has 34 provincial administrative regions, including 23 provinces, 5 autonomous regions, 4 municipalities directly under the central government and 2 special administrative regions.

1 1, the total population of China is129.5 billion (2000), which is characterized by a large population base and a large population growth rate.

12. In order to adapt population growth to social and economic development and resources and environmental conditions, the Chinese government regards "family planning" as a basic national policy.

13, the population distribution in China is uneven, with a high population density in the east, especially in the southeast coast and a low population density in the west.

14, the population dividing line of China is from Heihe City, Heilongjiang Province to Tengchong City, Yunnan Province.

15, the most populous province in China and the largest Xinjiang province.

16. Among all ethnic groups in China, the Han nationality has the largest population and the Zhuang nationality has the largest population.

17, Han nationality is distributed all over the country, most concentrated in the east and middle, and ethnic minorities are mainly distributed in the southwest, northwest and northeast.

The distribution of 18 people has the characteristics of large heterogeneity and small concentration.

20. China implements regional ethnic autonomy in areas where ethnic minorities live in compact communities, and establishes organs of self-government, autonomous regions, autonomous prefectures, autonomous counties and ethnic townships.

Chapter II Natural Environment of China

2 1. The western part of China is dominated by mountains, plateaus and basins, while the eastern part is dominated by plains and hills. The terrain is characterized by a stepped distribution.

22. The first step The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is located in the southwest, with an average elevation of more than 4,000 meters, which is called the roof of the world.

23. The dividing line between the first and second steps is Kunlun Mountain, Qilian Mountain and Hengduan Mountain, while the dividing line between the second and third steps is Daxinganling, Taihang Mountain, Wushan Mountain and Xuefeng Mountain.

24. The four plateaus are great basin, Northeast Plain, North China Plain and Loess Plateau in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, Inner Mongolia Plateau, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau, Sichuan Basin, Qaidam Basin, Tarim Basin and Junggar Basin.

25. The characteristic texture of the Loess Plateau is loose, there is no vegetation cover here, soil erosion is serious, ravines are vertical and horizontal, the characteristic ground of the Inner Mongolia Plateau is flat and boundless, the characteristic glaciers of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau are widely distributed, and the characteristic ground of the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau is rugged.

26. The common natural disasters in mountainous areas are collapses, landslides and mudslides.

27, the development and utilization of mountainous areas, to pay special attention to the ecological environment construction.

28. Mountainous areas include mountains, rugged plateaus and hills, accounting for about two-thirds of the national territory.

29. In winter, the temperature in the south and the north of China is quite different. In summer, the temperature is generally high in most places.

1October 30,65438 0℃ isotherm is distributed along the Qinling-Huaihe line.

3 1. The coldest place in winter is Mohe in Heilongjiang, and the hottest place in summer is Turpan in Xinjiang.

32. Chongqing, Wuhan and Nanjing are the so-called "three furnaces" in China.

33. China is divided into five temperate zones from north to south: cold temperate zone, middle temperate zone, warm temperate zone, subtropical zone and tropical zone. There is also a plateau climate zone with high terrain, cold climate and vast area.

34. The main index of dividing temperature zone is active accumulated temperature.

35. The general trend of annual precipitation in China is decreasing from the southeast coast to the northwest inland.

36. The place with the most precipitation in China is Huoshaoliao in Taiwan Province Province, and the place with the least precipitation is Toksun in Turpan Basin.

37. The contrast between precipitation and evaporation in a place reflects the humidity of the climate there.

38. The division of dry and wet areas is based on the degree of dry and wet climate. The four major dry and wet areas in China are humid area, semi-humid area, semi-arid area and arid area.

39. The main reasons for the large temperature difference between north and south in China are latitude position and winter wind.

40. The dividing line between monsoon area and non-monsoon area is Daxinganling, Yinshan, Helan, Bayan Kara and Gangdise.

42. The biggest advantage of monsoon climate is that rain and heat are in the same period, but it will bring some disastrous weather such as cold wave, flood and drought and typhoon.

43. Tarim River, the largest inland river in China, mainly comes from the melting water of ice and snow in Kunlun Mountain and Tianshan Mountain. Flowing rivers, such as the Yangtze River, mainly come from natural precipitation.

44. The longest and earliest artificial river in the world is the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal.

45. Bayan Kara, the birthplace of the Yellow River, flows into the Bohai Sea.

46. Ningxia Plain has the reputation of "Jiangnan in the world".

47. The dividing line between the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River is the estuary, and the dividing line between the middle and lower reaches is Jin Meng.

48. The riverbed of the lower Yellow River gradually rises and becomes an "overground river".

49. After the Yellow River flows through the middle reaches, it produces the most sediment, because the terrain it flows through is the Loess Plateau.

50. The Yangtze River originates in Tanggula Mountain and flows into the East China Sea. It is the longest river with the largest amount of water and the widest drainage area in China, and is known as "water treasure house" and "golden waterway".

5 1, Yichang, the dividing line between the upper and middle reaches of the Yangtze River, Hukou and the middle and lower reaches.

52. The hydropower resources of the Yangtze River are mainly concentrated in the upper reaches. Yibin city is navigable in the following four seasons.

53. Jingjiang River is known as the "nine-bend ileum", which is the regulation measure of this river section, that is, cutting and bending to get straight.

54. The three major sources in the plain area of the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River are the main tributaries above Yichang, the two major water systems of Dongting Lake and Poyang Lake, and the Han River in the north.

55. For renewable resources, if we use them rationally and pay attention to their protection and cultivation, we can achieve sustainable utilization. We should cherish and economize on the use of non-renewable resources.

56. China's natural resources are characterized by abundant gross and insufficient per capita.

57. Land resources are divided into cultivated land, woodland, grassland and construction land according to land use and land use status.

58. China's per capita land resources are few, and the proportion of various land resources is not reasonable, which is mainly manifested in the shortage of cultivated land and forest land, the difficulty in land use and the shortage of reserve land resources. The contradiction between man and land is particularly prominent.

59. China's cultivated land and forest land are mainly distributed in the eastern monsoon region with humid climate, and grassland is mainly distributed in the western inland area with annual average precipitation less than 400 mm.

60. Man-made destruction of land resources includes soil erosion, land desertification and indiscriminate occupation of cultivated land.

6 1, a basic national policy of land resources is to cherish and rationally use every inch of land and effectively protect cultivated land.

62. Of the water on the earth, seawater accounts for 97% and fresh water accounts for 2.5%.

63. Most of the fresh water resources on the earth are glaciers at poles and mountains, and most of the rest are deep groundwater. At present, the freshwater resources used by human beings are mainly rivers, lakes and shallow groundwater.

64. China's total water resources are less than Brazil, Russian Federation, Canadian, American and Indonesian, ranking sixth in the world. If calculated per capita, it is only 65438+ 0/4 of the world average.

65. In terms of time distribution, precipitation is concentrated in summer and less in winter and spring. Measures to effectively adjust the seasonal variation of runoff and water quantity, and build reservoirs.

66. In terms of spatial distribution, China's water resources are abundant in the south and deficient in the north, especially in North China and Northwest China, which further aggravates the water shortage in the north. One of the effective ways to solve the uneven distribution of water resources in different regions is inter-basin water transfer.

67. The South-to-North Water Transfer Project is to transfer water from the Yangtze River system to North China and Northwest China, where water shortage is serious.

In view of the serious shortage of water resources in China, saving water is particularly important.

69. The "vanguard" of economic development is transportation.

70. The four famous "rice markets" in the history of China are Wuxi, Wuhu, Jiujiang and Changsha.

7 1. Among all kinds of transportation routes, railway transportation is the most important mode of transportation in China. There are no railway lines in Tibet at present.

72. Most valuable or urgently needed goods are transported by air in small quantities.

73. Goods that are easily damaged or deteriorated are mostly transported by road.

74. For bulk heavy goods and long-distance transportation, waterway transportation and railway transportation are generally selected.

75. Agricultural production sectors include planting, forestry, animal husbandry and fisheries.

76. Agriculture is the basic main industry supporting the national economic construction and people's development.

77. Natural grasslands are widely distributed in the western region, and there are four pastoral areas in China: Inner Mongolia, Qinghai, Xinjiang and Tibet.

78. Forestry is concentrated in northeast, southwest and southeast regions. The middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River are the most developed areas of freshwater fishery in China.

79. The announcement of rice and wheat in food crops presents a pattern of "rice in the south and wheat in the north".

80. Oil production has formed two major producing areas: the Yangtze River rape belt and the Huanghuai peanut area.

8 1, sugar crops show obvious distribution characteristics of "Longnan and North Sweet".

82. Cotton production is mainly in the north, forming three major cotton regions: southern Xinjiang, the Yellow River basin and the Yangtze River basin.

83. Industry is the leading industry of the national economy.

84. Zhongguancun is the earliest high-tech experimental zone in China.

85. Main features of high-tech industries 1. Among the employees, scientific and technological personnel account for a large proportion. A large part of sales revenue is spent on research and development. 3. The product is updated quickly.

86. High-tech production is an industry dominated by electronics and information industry.

87. China's high-tech industrial development zones are mostly attached to big cities, showing the distribution characteristics of large dispersion and small concentration.

88. To develop agriculture according to local conditions, on the one hand, we should consider the differences of natural environment, on the other hand, we should consider the constraints of social and economic conditions.