Why is the term of office of the Ombudsman in Rome 18 months, but elections are only held every five years, so how to deal with his responsibilities after leaving office?

Athens, the cradle of human democratic thought

In the 8th century BC, after the formation of Athens city-state, the regime was controlled by gentry. The oligarchic dictatorship of aristocrats kept civilians and aristocrats in a state of confrontation for a long time. It was not until later that * * * chose Solon as mediator and consul and entrusted the government to him that Athenian politics entered the democratic period. This was around 594 BC.

Solon's reform adopted the golden mean, suppressed the rich and helped the poor, and entered politics as an arbitrator. He said that between the rich and the poor, he held a big shield to "protect both sides and prevent either side from gaining an unfair advantage." He also said, "I make laws, regardless of whether they are high or low, treat them equally, go straight, and everyone has his place." He resumed the civic assembly and the 400-member meeting. The citizens' assembly is the highest authority of the country, and citizens at all levels have the right to participate. It has the right to elect important officials and decide on state affairs such as war and peace. The 400-member conference is equivalent to the standing body of the citizens' assembly (such as the National People's Congress Standing Committee (NPCSC) today), and consists of 65,438+000 people elected by each of the four tribes. In addition, people's courts have been established, and every citizen has the right to participate, and jurors can be elected to participate in the trial of cases. He stipulates that every citizen has the right to appeal to the citizens' assembly and the people's court about his vital interests, and anyone has the freedom to claim compensation for the victims voluntarily. In China, today, if a lawyer represents an injured consumer group, it is not allowed! The United States has such public interest litigation. )

He popularized the right to vote and enabled ordinary people to enjoy the basic democratic rights of citizens. Aristotle commented, "When people have the right to vote, they become the masters of the government." Therefore, Solon expanded the social foundation of life-saving participation and laid the foundation of Athens' democratic political system.

However, he did not please both sides and resigned on his own initiative, but the condition for leaving his job was that he must implement the constitution he promulgated. At this time, it was the Eastern Zhou Dynasty in China. In the second year, Chu Zhuangwang's enemy, Lu Hun, passed through Luoyi, making people ask the Zhou Dynasty for dominance. When the king of Chu refused to go to the embassy, the Chu soldiers retreated. After ten years of siege, Zheng Bo surrendered and was released. Sixteen years, Chu Zhuangwang died. )

Later, after the rule of peisistratus and Cleisthenes, the democratic system developed again, and finally the Athenian city-state democracy was determined.

In 492 BC (equivalent to the end of the Spring and Autumn Period in China, 770-476 BC), after the demise of the vassal state in the bonfire drama, Zhou gradually weakened and the local vassal state became stronger and stronger, with the five tyrants in the Spring and Autumn Period as the most important. ), the Persian army invaded Greece and the Persian War broke out. The war lasted about half a century. A peace treaty was signed in the first 449 years. The Persian empire was badly weakened, but Athens' military and political prestige was greatly improved and it achieved the status of Greek leader. It has created extremely favorable conditions for the development and spread of democratic politics. During this period, from 443 to 429, Pericles was re-elected as the chief general of Athens and became the supreme ruler of Athens, which initiated a new era of Greek civilization.

Pericles opened the position of consul to the third level and acquiesced in those elected in the fourth level, thus making it possible for more poor citizens to hold public office. In 45 1 year BC, the civil law was promulgated.

He strengthened the role of the citizens' assembly, which further restricted the consul's power and prevented him from being re-elected. Any citizen can file an "illegal complaint" with the court. Even if the resolution of the 500-member meeting or the citizens' assembly violates the current constitution or the legislative procedure, ordinary citizens can lodge a complaint, and the jury court has the right to hear it. Aristotle praised this as the right thing to do. "Because a few people are always more susceptible to money or power and more prone to corruption than most people."

During the period of Pericles, Athens enjoyed economic and cultural prosperity and unprecedented development of democratic politics. Athens became a typical example of perfecting city-state democracy.

Democracy in Athens can be summarized as the following concepts:

First of all, sovereignty belongs to the people's minds. Pericles said in a speech, "Our political system is called democracy because the political power is in the hands of citizens all over the country, not a few people." Aristotle also said that the essential feature of Athens civilian politics is that "civilians must have the highest power; Political affairs are determined by the will of the majority; The will of most people is justice. " (Of course, this has also buried the hidden danger of "tyranny of the majority". Socrates, a philosopher, was sentenced to death by referendum in 399 BC for propagating untimely ideas. ) Athenian citizens have actual control over officials and laws, and they realize this power through the courts. Courts belong to all citizens. Any member of the court is open to citizens over 30 years old. There are 6,000 jurors, who are elected once a year, and then allocated to various courts by lot to exercise their functions and powers. Successive consuls should flatter civilians like tyrants. Sovereignty in the people is also manifested as "taking turns to govern." Athens politics is open to all citizens, and official positions are no longer limited by wealth and family status. The Athenians believed that since every citizen was free, no one should be ruled by others. This is actually impossible, so we have to "take turns to be rulers and ruled." "This is justice."

Second, the idea of power restriction. Aristotle mentioned that all political systems have three elements: deliberative function, administrative function and judicial function. Shell exile law is an important means for all Athenian citizens to control senior administrative officials. In the eyes of the Athenians, in a city-state composed of equal people, it is unnatural for one person to be above the whole country. If an administrative official has too much power, it may endanger the country, so citizens can expel him from the country in a secret vote held once a year. Shell Exile Law is a modern impeachment law for senior executives. Why is it called shelling? Because many civilians can't read, they use shells as a tool to show their attitude. It can be seen that democracy does not have to be implemented after illiteracy is eliminated. )

Third, the idea of the supremacy of law. The political system in Athens strictly implements the rule of law, and the rule of man is absolutely forbidden. Pericles said, "In private life, we are free and tolerant. But in public affairs, we obey the law. This is because this spirit has deeply convinced us. " Before taking office, every official must swear that he will be a fair and lawful politician and will never accept gifts from his position. If they accept something, they will erect a golden statue, which will last forever. Some senior officials, including the top ten generals, were exiled and executed for illegal personal gain, including a son of Pericles who was also executed innocently. Aristotle said, "Who says individuals should rule? This has mixed animal factors into politics. " The Athenians thought that an autocratic regime that ignored the law was the worst regime. Athens also set up a marble tablet engraved with the anti-tyrant law, stipulating that anyone who tries to establish a dictatorship in Athens is not guilty. In 5 14 BC, two young men were killed because they failed to assassinate the tyrant. The Athenians regarded them as a generation of heroes and made statues to commemorate them.

Fourth, civic awareness. Democracy brought unprecedented prosperity to Athens. Everyone in Athens is proud to live in a United and harmonious Athens. In the funeral speech, Pericles was permeated with the solemn sense of honor of the Athenians-

"I hope you look at the magnificent Athens every day, which will gradually fill your hearts with love for her. When you are fascinated by her magnificent scenery, you will think of the people who created this empire. They understand their duties and have the courage to perform their duties ... give their lives generously for her, just like the best gift for her holiday. "

Everyone can go into politics, and a unified citizen collective has been formed. Caring for Athens, participating in politics and taking turns in power are sacred things in the hearts of Athenians. It is by observing this phenomenon that Aristotle said, "Man is a political animal."

As a model of Greek city-state democracy, Athens has become the cradle of human democracy and the cradle of human democratic thought, which has far-reaching influence on all countries in the world.

In order to prevent the tyranny of the majority, since the17th century, several generations of western enlightenment thinkers have vigorously advocated citizens' freedom of speech, publication, association and belief, believing that this is a sacred and inviolable basic civil right and a magic weapon to prevent the recurrence of Socrates' tragedy.

The Democratic Republic of Rome

At the end of 6th century BC, Rome established a republic of aristocratic dictatorship. After nearly two centuries of struggle, civilians and nobles promoted the development of Roman democracy. Become another model of ancient democracy. However, the degree of democratization in Rome is not as good as that in Athens, and aristocrats have always been the leading force in the operation of political power.

Around 5 10 BC, the Roman Republic was founded, and the 100-member Committee elected military and political officials, that is, consuls, from nobles.

The early political system of the Roman Republic was aristocratic politics, and the Senate had the greatest power. Consists of tribal elders and retired consuls (equivalent to CPPCC, right? ) have the right to decide domestic and foreign policies and examine and approve bills. The consul elected by the Hundred-member Regiment must also be approved by the Senate. The political, social and economic status of the broad masses of civilians and nobles is very different, so they can't be elected as senior officials, can't be members of the Senate, and can't marry the nobles. As a result, the disparity between the rich and the poor has not been solved for a long time, but has worsened. 494 BC (equivalent to the Zhou Dynasty of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. Zi Chao stood on his own feet after killing the enemy fiercely, but Jin made beggars worship the king. Four years later, the state of Jin led the princes to worship the king and return to the DPRK. In the thirty-ninth year, Qi Tian often killed his monarch, Jane Gong, which was the famous "Tian Xing replaced Qi", that is, from this time on, the monarch of Qi was not the descendant of Jiang Ziya, but Tian Xing. In forty-one years, Chu destroyed Chen. Confucius is dead. In the Battle of Baiju (Sun Tzu destroyed Chu), the army was paid, the Tian family replaced Qi, and Confucius died. ) Rome was invaded by foreign countries, and in order to let the people fight, it promised to reduce debts for civilians, but the enemy backed down and reneged. Civilians left Rome with weapons and camped in the holy mountain. The nobles gave in. Then there was the second evacuation movement. Roman nobles promised to elect tribunes. Tribune became an important factor restricting the power of nobles and had veto power over government decrees.

Senate-consul-forum has a certain balanced structure.

In 450 BC, the law of twelve copper tables was formulated. Protect private property, prohibit all privileges and limit aristocratic tyranny. It had a great influence on the development of the concept of legal rights in modern Europe. Around 444 BC, among the chief executives, civilians finally appeared.

After the struggle of the civilians, the decision adopted by the tribal Council to stipulate civilians is legally binding on all Romans. Civilian meetings have the nature of citizens' meetings. In 287 BC (about the Warring States Period in China), the Qin Dynasty was in the process of destroying the six countries by force. The people really enjoy the legislative power. When a citizen is sentenced to death or corporal punishment by the Chief Executive, he has the right to appeal to the People's Congress. The People's Forum is sacred and inviolable. Insulters will be sentenced to death and their property will be confiscated.

In the history of the Roman Republic, the struggle between civilians and nobles, the struggle between the Senate and military dictators runs through. These two clues are intertwined, which makes the history of Rome complicated and changeable.

The early Roman official position, like the early Athens official position, was unpaid. Especially for senior officials, certain assets are required as "representative qualifications". (I'm afraid this can also provide reference for today's democratic system construction. In view of the seriousness and universality of official corruption, they would rather make money first and then become officials, rather than be officials and then make money. The former, being an official is an honor; The latter, being an official is to make a fortune. At that time, it was still popular that people with official positions should not only live according to their status, but also invest their personal property in public construction and entertainment institutions.

Rome is actually an aristocratic republic. Slightly inferior to Athenian democracy. The economic base of the Roman Republic is land ownership, unlike the handicraft industry and commodity economy in Athens.

Rome * * * and the supreme power have been controlled by the Senate (this is much better than China's control in the hands of the emperor. China's political system, in essence, is the emperor's private ownership, which is the largest private ownership. Is the whole world a land of kings? Is leading the land king? However, this country also likes to advocate "public ownership". Only in countries like Athens and ancient Rome can there be "citizens". In the feudal history of China for thousands of years, there were only "domestic servants". )

The important components of this power structure are the People's Congress, the Hundred People's Association and the Tribal People's Association. Among the senior officials, there are consuls (elected by the committee of 100 Parliament for a term of one year). They are the main executors of the Senate and people's resolutions and are responsible for domestic security. Dictator, Chief Executive and Ombudsman (known as the most sacred position of senior officials, elected by people who have served as consuls. Since 433 BC, elections have been held every five years, but their term of office is only 18 months. Its duties are: examining the list of Senate, conducting citizen surveys, supervising citizens' morality, and managing state-owned assets and public works. You can expel the veteran from the Senate according to the situation. Tribune (only civilians can hold this position. A *** 10, with a term of one year, is a special supervision institution for democracy during the whole Republic of China. Tribune officials are inviolable. You can veto the Senate resolution. But it is also easy to be bought off. )

Later, after the Spartan Uprising in Rome (like China's ××), dictators gained status and became more and more dependent on military rule. From the 2nd century BC, it began to move towards autocracy, Sura-crassus-Pompeii's "Three Heroes Politics". In 49 BC (equivalent to the end of the Western Han Dynasty in China), Caesar gained dictatorship and became a dictator for life. Later, his nephew W. David stepped onto the political stage in Rome and took power in it. The Roman Republic finally perished and entered the Roman Empire.