What are the main differences between Chinese and foreign classical gardens?

The similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures based on Chinese and Western architectural styles. The Forbidden City in Beijing. German scholar Ernst Cassirer said in his "On Man": "Human culture is divided into various activities. Progress along different routes and pursue different purposes. "The differences between Chinese and Western cultures in terms of origins and reasons, development logic and space, construction concepts and purposes, etc., will inevitably be integrated into and reflected in architectural culture or architectural style. Therefore, the difference between Chinese and Western architectural cultures should fundamentally be understood as the difference between Chinese and Western cultural traditions. It is generally believed that: Chinese culture emphasizes people, while Western culture emphasizes things; Chinese culture emphasizes morality and art, and Western culture emphasizes science and religion; Chinese culture emphasizes integration and unification, and emphasizes coexistence and unity, while Western culture emphasizes the unique spirits of different eras, highlighting the Personality traits of various genres, etc. The differences or differences in architectural features, artistic forms, development origins, and humanistic concepts contained in the rich and colorful architectural cultures of China and the West can be confirmed and reflected in the buildings of the past dynasties and the architectural works handed down. Ideas and Fantasy The famous French writer Victor Hugo highly summarized the fundamental differences between the two major architectural systems of the East and the West. He believes: "Art has two origins: one is the idea - from which European art emerged; the other is fantasy - from which Oriental art emerged." In other words, Western architecture has sculptural characteristics in terms of modeling, and its emphasis on It lies in two-dimensional facades and three-dimensional shapes; while Chinese architecture has the characteristics of painting, which focuses on pictures rich in artistic conception and does not pay much attention to the volume, shape and perspective effect of a single building, but Often committed to a group effect that uses individual units as units and extends in plane and space. The West attaches great importance to the whole and parts of the building, as well as the proportion, balance, rhythm and other formal beauty principles between parts; China attaches great importance to space and the spatial experience of "different scenery" when people move in the built environment, which is the dynamic beauty, spatial beauty, Convey the unity of divine beauty. Therefore, it can be considered that the ideality of European architecture is mainly reflected in "reality", while the fantasy of Chinese architecture is mainly reflected in "empty". Imitation and freehand brushwork Aristotle believed that art originated from imitation, and art is the product of imitation. The different column structures in ancient Greek architecture imitated the human body beauty of different genders. Europeans pay more attention to formal logic, emphasize verisimilitude, rely on argumentation, and focus on geometric analysis. They place more emphasis on symmetry, concreteness, and the beauty of simulated geometric patterns in the artistic conception and overall layout of architecture. Chinese people attach great importance to people's inner world's understanding, feeling and grasp of external things, and how to artistically embody this mental understanding and inner feeling, which has a strong sense of freehand brushwork. It is a generalization and perception of abstract beauty, a combination or fusion of a certain tangible real scene and the infinite virtual scene it symbolizes. What it pursues is the artistic conception of "being so proud that you forget about the image". The Chinese also pay attention to verisimilitude and argumentation, but this must be based on the "expressiveness" of freehand brushwork, and physical resemblance is inferior to spiritual resemblance. For example, the eaves and wings on the tops of classical buildings in my country are shaped like flying winds. Their expressive and expressive nature is very full of the artistic passion of the Tang Dynasty painter Zhang Wentong's so-called "learning from outside, getting the heart from the heart", giving people a powerful feeling. psychological appeal. Ritual and Music and Logic The concept of Ritual and Music comes from the "Yue Ji" in the Spring and Autumn Period, which is the close relationship between beauty and kindness, art and regulations, emotion and reason, psychology and ethics. Ritual is the ethical standard of society, and music is the emotional standard of society. "The combination of ritual and music" or the close cooperation of ritual and music is the expression of the Chinese rational spirit. It can be said that the artistic appeal of Chinese architecture is the romantic sentiment (music) exuded on the basis of rationality (etiquette), and what it embodies and implies is a certain "poetic" beauty of Chinese architecture. This is somewhat similar to the Chinese people’s behavioral approach of “thinking squarely and acting roundly”. Western architectural culture pays more attention to logic and argumentation. Its characteristics can be summarized as rationality and resistance spirit, individual and subjective consciousness, heaven and religious concepts, rationality and logic of architectural art processing, and emphasis on the coordination and layout of art, technology and environment. , paying attention to appropriate proportions and artistic sophistication, etc. All these characteristics have been mentioned or elaborated in European architectural theories, and they are also reflected in their architectural entities.

Closedness and openness China’s courtyards, walls, screen walls, etc., show a certain introverted, closed and even "once and for all" ideological tendency. Some people even think: "The closed courtyard symbolizes our closed society", "China is a 'Qin Dynasty'" "A world of bricks and tiles"... The West emphasizes that external space should be the main focus, calling the central square "the city's living room", "the city's living room", etc., with the intention of transforming indoors into outdoor spaces. For example, the Palace of Versailles in France was built in 1756. Its 220-acre back garden is blended with symmetrical and neatly cut trees on both sides, and pools and sculptures one after another, stretching into the urban forest in the distance... China Some larger houses or mansions generally imitate the back garden into a natural landscape, and surround it with buildings and walls. There is a Crescent River, three or five pavilions, and rockeries in the garden... It is obvious that nature is included in the garden. tendency. It can be said that this is the architectural reflection and manifestation of the purely defensive, self-enclosed, and introverted cultural mentality of the Chinese people who seek internal peace and self-preservation and external defense and security. Conservative and progressive The gardens or favorite natural scenic spots created by the Chinese are generally secluded or reclusive, reflecting the Chinese people who have lived in an agricultural society for a long time. In terms of the overall layout, space setting, and functional division of the building, more emphasis is placed on the inherent requirements of others and themselves to "live in peace and not interfere with each other." This to a certain extent satisfies the Chinese people's tendency to be conservative, preventive, and The psychological need for harmony and peace seems to be the same as the orientation of character cultivation of "seeking self-protection from the outside and gaining peace of mind from the inside". The formal gardens of continental Europe give people a sense of broad vision, grand conception, complex techniques, and romantic mood in terms of layout, composition, and artistic conception; while their geometric gardens embody the opposition between man and nature, the victory of man over nature, and the feeling of nature. The thinking habits and spiritual concepts that distinguish people. In a sense, this reflects the extroverted, enterprising, and external-seeking behavior pattern and value orientation of Westerners in conquering nature. Groups and Individuals Chinese architecture, especially courtyard-style buildings, pays attention to group combinations. The "courtyard" is generally the basic unit of the combination. This is a reflection of the Chinese cultural tradition that places greater emphasis on groups and inhibits or even stifles the development of individuality, or has a great influence on it. relation. For example, the endless square courtyards, large and small, spread out layer by layer from the ground, showing their rhythm in time. Under each green and gray roof, there is a warm home. If you look at the scenery in the rain, the artistic conception of "the Imperial City in Yunli with two phoenixes and thousands of homes in the trees" will become even more remote, profound and thought-provoking. However, Western single buildings express individuality and independence of "personality". It is believed that outstanding individuals are immortal and handed down from generation to generation. The Pantheon in Paris, France, the 320-meter Eiffel Tower, the Leaning Tower of Pisa in Florence, Italy, the John Hancock Building in Boston, the United States, etc., are all typical manifestations of this philosophical thought or cultural concept. These outstanding, independent and unique buildings can give people a prominent, exciting and upward shock and appeal. Static and dynamic pools, rivers, etc. in Chinese gardens generally present a certain graceful, slender appearance, with the potential of gentle waves. Its layout pays more attention to the combination of virtuality and reality, and its emotion emphasizes the separation of movement and stillness, with more static and less movement. This kind of conception and layout is more suitable for creating a loose and clear, quiet and elegant environmental space, which is conducive to highlighting the humanistic temperament of ease and nature, transformation and coordination, and placing affection on the scenery, expressing "the connection between emotion and scenery, and the connection between intention and image" artistic conception. Just like Chinese landscape paintings, there is usually a slight "blank" left, and the so-called "knowing the white and keeping the black" is used to achieve the artistic effect and appeal of charm, aura, and connotation. Most of the fountains, waterfalls, springs, etc. in Western gardens are magnificent and dynamic, and can show a certain unrestrained, smart, enthusiastic, and forward momentum. This is just like the Chinese invented Qigong (static), while Westerners developed competitive sports (dynamic). The similarities, differences, and interests between them are both confusing and very thought-provoking. Implicit and Explicit China places more emphasis on curves and implicit beauty, that is, "fake things in fables, not straightforwardness." The layout, concept, scene selection, etc. of the garden all emphasize the combination of reality and reality, and the complementarity of culture and quality. Some may pursue natural feelings, some may fall in love with rural landscapes, or some may express their feelings and ambitions through songwriting. We work hard at "borrowing scenery" to achieve subtlety, mystery, and full gestures; we use "curves" skillfully to make nature, environment, and gardens coordinate with each other in personality and wholeness, and complement each other like the sky.

The technique of "skill lies in the borrowing of causes, and the essence lies in the appropriateness of body" is similar to the "Bixing" or "Yinxiu" of classical Chinese poetry, which emphasizes the emotion and meaning behind the words. It seems careless and smooth, but in fact it is unique, meticulous, comprehensive and profound. In the West, the beauty is straight, exposed, large-scale and majestic, such as open and flat lawns, huge open-air sports fields, majestic high-rise buildings, etc., all of which emphasize the analysis of axes and geometric figures, straight, Openness and exposure are undoubtedly important features, which have different aesthetic concepts from the symbolic, suggestive and implicit features of Chinese architecture. Inheritance and innovation China often relies on intuition and experience to grasp formal beauty and engineering technology, and pays more attention to the mastery and application of skills. In the teaching of architectural theory and architectural knowledge, the method of inheritance from master to apprentice or oral teaching is generally adopted. In the transmission route of architectural skills or construction techniques, it is mainly passed down from master to apprentice or from father to son. Without successors or successors, people often die and their skills are lost. In the application of architectural skills and techniques, there is generally more inheritance than innovation. In the choice of architectural style, imitation is often more important than transcendence. In architectural theory, it focuses on the description of building materials, construction technology and management experience, but lacks detailed summary and theoretical achievements. Relatively speaking, the West starts from geometric analysis, emphasizes the rigor and accuracy of architectural data, pays more attention to breakthroughs and innovations in architectural theory, actively explores new architectural forms, advocates and actively forms different architectural styles and schools, and architectural education adopts Systematic, rational approach, etc. In a sense, this is strikingly similar to the differences between Chinese and Western medicine in terms of practice methods, pharmacological operations, and technical teaching. The compatibility of Chinese culture also determines that Chinese traditional culture does not exclude foreign culture, but proceeds from reality and absorbs and creates it according to its own situation to better integrate it into the cultural system of the nation. From the perspective of architectural style, during the Eastern Han Dynasty around BC, Buddhism was introduced from India to China, and the form of the Indian pagoda was introduced to create the Chinese pagoda. After the Tang Dynasty, Islam was introduced from the Middle East, and Islamic mosque architecture was introduced to create the style of Chinese mosque buildings. During the Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty in the 18th century, Italian-style gardens were introduced and built in the Old Summer Palace in Beijing, and so on. It should be said that China pays great attention to the introduction and absorption of excellent foreign architectural styles and design techniques. In short, cities, gardens, buildings, etc., as a carrier of culture, have profound cultural imprints and strong elements of humanistic spirit behind them. Paying attention to cultural traditions, exploring national characteristics, and activating the country's special cultural values ​​have become one of the international trends in architectural thought. Architectural styles have entered an era of "each shows his or her own special powers", and humanistic pursuits have become a new measure of value in architecture. By comparing several differences between Chinese and Western architectural cultures, we can see that Chinese and Western architectural styles have different cultural backgrounds and unique expressive charms. Therefore, in order to produce cities, gardens and buildings with Chinese style, cultural heritage, historical spirit and national style, we must learn from the excellent architectural culture of other nations and strive to skillfully integrate the excellent culture of the Chinese nation into it, and integrate Only by combining the elements of the nation, the times, culture, and development can we create excellent architectural works and cities that reflect national cultural characteristics.

Reference: /07/0517/17/3EN9U9HG00011T1I.html Fundamentally speaking, the difference between Chinese and Western architectural art comes first from the difference in materials: traditional Western architecture has long been based on stone; Oriental buildings have always been framed with wood. This difference in building materials provides different possibilities for their respective architectural arts. Different building materials and different social functions give Chinese and Western classical architecture different "artistic languages". Different languages ​​express different thoughts and reveal different emotions; different buildings carry different cultures and embody different beliefs. Western stone buildings generally develop vertically and point directly toward the sky. In this way, whether the high-density stone roof can be lifted into the sky has become the key to architectural art, and the columns that perform this task have become the key among the keys. Therefore, the "basic vocabulary" of Western architecture is pillars, that is, those vertical stones that stand up to the sky and the ground. If columns are the "basic vocabulary" of Western architectural art, then the roof is its "main sentence structure." The differences in roofs lead to differences in styles, such as Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Gothic, Baroque, etc.

Different from Western stone buildings, ancient Chinese wooden buildings used brackets as their "basic vocabulary". The so-called brackets are overlapping curved wood that hold up the eaves. They can expand the vertical force to the horizontal direction, thereby constructing a variety of cornices. Like the roofs of Western buildings, as the "main sentence" of ancient Chinese architecture, there are many types of cornices, either low hanging, straight, or upward. Its different forms create different artistic effects, either light, simple, or majestic. Not only do pavilions, platforms, buildings, and pavilions have to use cornices to mark their identity and express their emotions, but the height and length of cornices often become difficult and important points in architectural design. As the saying goes, "If it is increased by one point, it is too long, and if it is reduced by one point, it is too short." The design of the cornice must be just right so that it can appear light but not frivolous, simple but not mechanical, and majestic but not rigid. In addition, the Chinese people's attitude towards architecture values ​​newness, while foreigners are full of respect and reverence for ancient buildings. There is also the fact that Western architecture is full of religious mysticism, while Chinese architecture is a reflection of Confucian culture. . In addition, here is a more systematic article, which may be more clear. But generally speaking, these are the few points, and the following will be summarized. Chen Anguo: Comparison of Chinese and foreign urban architectural cultures. The difference in architectural form between China and the West is a manifestation of cultural differences. It reflects differences in material and natural environments, differences in social structural forms, differences in people's thinking methods, and differences in aesthetic realms. 1. The difference in building materials reflects the differences in material culture and philosophical concepts between China and the West. From the perspective of building materials, before the emergence of modern architecture, all developed and mature building systems in the world, including Indian architecture that belongs to oriental architecture, were basically built with masonry as the main building material. Belongs to masonry structural system. Such as the pyramids of Egypt, the temples of ancient Greece, the Colosseum and aqueducts of ancient Rome, and the churches of medieval Europe... all are built of stone, and all are historical witnesses left in this "stone history book" . Only my country's classical architecture (including neighboring Japan, North Korea and other regions) uses wood as the main structure of the house, which belongs to the wooden structure system, so it is known as the "history book of wood". The choice of materials in Chinese and Western architecture is not only due to different natural factors, but more importantly, it is the result of different cultures and different concepts. It is a common reflection of different minds in architecture. The primitive economy in the West based on hunting has created a primitive mentality of heavy objects. From the Westerners' affirmation of stone, we can see that Westerners' rational spirit of seeking knowledge and truth emphasizes that man is the master of the world in the relationship between man and nature, and that man's strength and wisdom can defeat everything. China's economic model based on primitive agriculture has created a primitive civilization that emphasizes selection, collection, and storage. The traditional Chinese philosophy derived from this promotes the cosmology of "the unity of nature and man". "Unity of man and nature" is a revelation of the relationship between man and nature. Nature and man are closely connected as a whole, and man is a link in nature. The Chinese people choose wood as a basic building material because they value its close relationship with life. and relationships, paying attention to the results of its traits and life relationships. 2. The layout of the architectural space is different, reflecting the differences in institutional culture and personality characteristics between China and the West. From the perspective of the spatial layout of the building, Chinese architecture is a closed group spatial pattern, spread out on the ground plane. No matter what kind of buildings in China, from residences to palaces, they almost all have the same pattern, similar to the "siheyuan" model. The beauty of Chinese architecture is also a "collective" beauty. For example, the palaces of the Ming and Qing Dynasties in Beijing, the Ming Tombs, and the Confucius Temple in Qufu are large-scale building complexes with multiple courtyards. Various buildings are arranged in a regular manner with subjects and guests in front, back, left, and right, reflecting the social structure of ancient China. The introversion characteristics of the form, patriarchal thoughts and etiquette system. Contrary to China, Western architecture is an open, single spatial pattern that develops to high altitudes. Comparing the Forbidden City in Beijing and the Louvre in Paris, which were built and expanded in similar years, the former is a magnificent and majestic building group composed of thousands of individual houses, forming a series of courtyards around the axis, with an unusually large plane; the latter It adopts the upward expansion and vertical superposition of "volume" to form a majestic and majestic whole from a huge and changeable shape. Moreover, since the city-states of ancient Greece and Rome, colonnades, doors and windows have been widely used to increase information exchange and transparency, and to surround the building with external space to highlight the physical image of the building. This is related to the fact that Westerners have often communicated with each other through maritime exchanges and implemented slave democracy within society.

The extroverted character and scientific and democratic spirit of ancient Greece not only influenced ancient Rome, but also the entire Western world. At the same time, if Chinese buildings occupy the ground, then Western buildings occupy the space. For example, the Colosseum in Rome is 48 meters high, the "Pantheon" is 43.5 meters high, and the medieval Hagia Sophia has a central The dome of the hall is 60 meters above the ground. The most brilliant work of Renaissance architecture, St. Peter's Basilica, is 137 meters high. This majestic and majestic building not only reflects Westerners' enthusiasm for worshiping gods, but also makes use of advanced scientific and technological achievements to give people a spiritual power to work hard. 3. The different development of architecture reflects the difference in attitudes towards innovation between China and the West. From the perspective of architectural development process, Chinese architecture is conservative. According to literature, the architectural forms and materials used in China have remained unchanged for 3,000 years. Unlike China, Western architecture often changes, and its structures and materials evolve more rapidly. It has been more than 2,500 years since the first temples appeared on the Acropolis of Athens, Greece. During this period, the architectural forms throughout ancient Europe have continued to evolve and change. From the classical column style of ancient Greece to the arch and dome roof technology of ancient Rome, from the pointed arch, cross arch and flying buttress technology of Gothic architecture to St. Peter's Basilica in Rome during the European Renaissance, no matter in terms of image, proportion, decoration and space layout have undergone great changes. This reflects the spirit of Westerners who dare to find new ways and be innovative. 4. The difference in architectural value reflects the differences in aesthetic concepts between China and the West. From the perspective of architectural value, Chinese architecture focuses on information, while Western architecture focuses on physical objects. The structure of ancient Chinese architecture does not rely on calculations, quantitative analysis, or formal logic. Instead, it relies on master-apprentice methods, teaching by word of mouth, practice, and experience. Our understanding of ancient architecture, especially those before the Tang Dynasty, mostly comes from literature. The imperial mausoleums and residences of the past dynasties were all operated according to the theory of Feng Shui and the principle of the mutual generation and restraint of the five elements. In order to seek harmony with the heaven, earth and all things in nature, to seek good fortune and avoid evil, and to attract wealth and blessings, we borrowed the power of mountains and rivers to build settlements close to mountains and facing plains. This kind of "looking up at the astronomy and looking down at the geography" is a unique culture in China. The geometric aesthetics and mathematical logic pioneered by Pythagoras and Euclid in ancient Greece, the rationalist "harmony theory" of "integrity" and "order" founded by Aristotle, and their influence on the entire Western civilization. Structure has a decisive influence, and the paths of all sciences and arts are determined by this idea. Looking at the history of Western architecture, it is not difficult to find that the structural awareness of Western architectural beauty is actually geometric shapes; the "control line" of the shape of the Partilon Temple in Athens is two squares; from the dome of the Pantheon in Rome to the ground, it is exactly It can be embedded into a sphere with a diameter of 43.3 meters; the "control line" of Milan Cathedral is an equilateral triangle, the facade of the Arc de Triomphe in Paris is a square, and its central arch and "control line" are two full circles. Even natural objects such as landscaping, flowers and trees, after artificial pruning and deliberate carving, present neat and orderly geometric patterns. With its "artificial beauty" that transcends nature and controls nature, it is similar to that of Chinese gardens. This natural sentiment of "although it is made by man, it seems to have come from heaven" forms a sharp contrast. As early as 2,000 years ago, Vitruvius, the architectural theorist of the Augustan period in ancient Rome, proposed the classic three-element view of architecture of "applicability, solidity, and beauty" in his famous "Ten Books on Architecture", which was Later generations regarded it as a guide and passed it down from generation to generation. At the beginning of the 17th century, architect Henry Wooden proposed that excellent buildings must meet three conditions: "sturdiness, practicality and joy." Westerners regard "sturdiness" and "practicality" as the first and second principles for evaluating excellent buildings. . Therefore, when China's ancient buildings were destroyed or "disappeared" with the passage of time, the buildings of ancient Greece, ancient Rome, and ancient Egypt in the West were still intact, interpreting their own culture with physical objects. Through the comparison of Chinese and Western architecture, we can see the differences in conceptual culture, institutional culture, and material culture between China and the West.