Classification of Chinese classical gardens and the differences between Chinese and Western classical gardens
The classification of Chinese classical gardens can be classified in different ways from different perspectives. There are generally two classification methods.
1. Classification according to the status of the owner
1. Royal Garden
It is a garden specially designed for emperors to rest and enjoy themselves. The ancients said that everything in the world belongs to the royal family. From the perspective of the ruling class, the country's mountains and rivers belong to the royal family. Therefore, it is characterized by its grand scale, many real mountains and rivers, the magnificent colors of the buildings in the garden, and the tall buildings. The existing famous royal gardens include: the Summer Palace in Beijing, Beihai Park in Beijing, and the Summer Resort in Chengde, Hebei.
2. Private gardens
It is a garden for leisure of the royal family members, princes and officials, wealthy businessmen, etc. It is characterized by its small scale, so rockeries and water are often used, and the buildings are small and exquisite, showing its elegant and pure colors. Existing private gardens include Prince Gong's Mansion in Beijing, Humble Administrator's Garden, Lingering Garden, Canglang Pavilion, and Lion Garden in Suzhou, and Yu Garden in Shanghai.
2. Gardens are classified according to their geographical location
1. Northern type
Northern gardens are larger in scope due to their vast territory; and because most of them are Hundreds of counties are located here, so the buildings are magnificent. Due to limitations of natural meteorological conditions, there are few rivers, lakes, garden stones and evergreen trees. Due to the rough style, the beauty is not enough. Representatives of northern gardens are mostly concentrated in Beijing, Xi'an, Luoyang and Kaifeng, especially Beijing.
. Jiangnan type
The population in the south is denser, so the garden area is smaller; and because there are more rivers, lakes, garden stones, and evergreen trees, the garden scenery is more delicate and exquisite. Due to the above conditions, it is characterized by bright beauty, elegance and simplicity, and deep twists and turns. However, after all, it is small in area and feels slightly cramped. Representatives of southern gardens are mostly concentrated in Nanjing, Shanghai, Wuxi, Suzhou, Hangzhou, Yangzhou and other places, especially Suzhou.
3. Lingnan type
Because it is located in the subtropical zone, evergreen all year round, and has many rivers, the gardening conditions are better than those in the north and south. Its obvious characteristics are its tropical scenery and tall and spacious buildings. Existing Lingnan-type gardens include the famous Qinghui Garden in Shunde, Guangdong, Keyuan in Dongguan, and Yuyin Shanfang in Panyu.
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The difference between Chinese and Western classical gardens
Chinese traditional gardens are an important part of Chinese traditional culture. As a carrier, it not only objectively and truly reflects the different historical backgrounds of Chinese dynasties, the rise and fall of social economy and the level of engineering technology, but also distinctively reflects the evolution of the Chinese people's outlook on nature, life and the world. It contains the influence of philosophical or religious thoughts such as Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism, as well as traditional arts such as landscape poetry and painting; it embodies the diligence and wisdom of Chinese intellectuals and skilled craftsmen. And compared with Western garden art, it prominently expresses the Chinese nation's yearning and love for nature and a beautiful living environment.
In 1990, China's scenic Mount Tai was included in the World Cultural and Natural Heritage List by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Since 1994, China's Chengde Summer Resort, Beijing's Summer Palace, and Suzhou's Zhuzhou The Political Garden, Liuyuan Garden and Huanxiu Villa have been included in the World Cultural Heritage List by UNESCO, thus becoming the most common cultural wealth of all mankind. This further proves that Chinese traditional gardens have compelling artistic charm and irreplaceable uniqueness. It is unique in the forest of world cultures and has been popular for thousands of years.
In ancient Chinese mythology, the "Yaochi" where the Queen Mother of the West lived and the "Xuanpu" where the Yellow Emperor lived were both described as beautiful gardens. Green mountains and clear waters are exactly the living environment that people dream of. According to ancient written records, during the late Yin and Zhou dynasties of China's slavery, a royal garden with a radius of dozens of miles appeared, which was the prototype of traditional Chinese gardens. During the Qin and Han Dynasties, more magnificent landscape palaces were developed, covering an area of hundreds of miles, and were formed by arranging a large number of palace annexes in the natural landscape environment.
During the Wei and Jin Dynasties, the thoughts of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism led to the emergence of garden-style temple gardens. At this time, simple landscape poems and landscape paintings led to the development of gardens for literati and officials. During the Tang and Song Dynasties, the level of landscape poetry and landscape painting was at its peak, so the freehand landscape garden came into being. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, the development of freehand landscape gardens reached its climax, and the art of gardening became more mature and perfect. At this time, both emperors, generals, and literati were pursuing a more authentic life experience in gardens and placing more aesthetic feelings and social concepts into them. This gives Chinese gardens a strong symbolic character.
This symbolic feature is first reflected in the naming of the garden and the scenic spots in the garden. The name of a Chinese garden is not directly related to the name of the garden owner, but is more related to the personality ideal of the garden owner. The predecessor of the Summer Palace in Beijing was called Qingyi Garden. After the reconstruction in 1886, the Queen Mother of the West took the meaning of "Yi Yang Chonghe" and changed it to its current name. This "Queen" who once "listened to politics behind the curtain" hopes that "the world will be peaceful" and that she will be able to "live long in life". The name "Jichang Garden" in Wuxi expresses its owner's hope that he can live freely. There are more than one "Grand View Tower" and "Grand View Garden" in China and its literary works. This not only means that this place has a broad vision and beautiful scenery, but also means that people who visit and live here should be open-minded and optimistic. According to historical records, there was a garden within a garden in Shanglinyuan, a famous royal garden in the Han Dynasty, called "Bowang Garden", which means that climbing high to look far and being close to nature can nourish and sublimate people's spirit.
According to expert research, as early as the 6th century AD, traditional Chinese garden art was spread to South Korea and Japan, where it took root, blossomed, and bore fruit. In the 18th century, traditional Chinese garden art spread to Europe, which had a great impact on the popular and regular British and French gardens at that time. For a time, imitation of Chinese natural gardens became a fashion in Europe. At the same time, European painters and missionaries were invited to create a group of Western-style buildings in the Old Summer Palace in Beijing, China, which were mainly in the Rococo style and blended with Chinese national cultural forms, pioneering the cooperation between Chinese and Western gardens.
The highest state of traditional Chinese gardening art is that "although it is made by humans, it seems to be created by nature." This is actually the embodiment of the idea of "harmony between man and nature" in traditional Chinese culture in gardens. Specifically, the extensive and profound traditional Chinese gardens are created according to the following principles.
1. Frame the landscape.
Because China has a vast territory. The mountains and rivers are beautiful and colorful. Since ancient times, Chinese people have had special feelings for nature, especially the living environment surrounded by mountains and water. Mountains and water are considered to be the combination of yin and yang in Feng Shui theory. Confucius once pointed out: "The benevolent are happy in the mountains, and the wise are happy in the water." Thus, the mountains and rivers are combined with human character. China's unique geographical conditions and cultural background have given birth to a landscape view that has had an important impact on Chinese gardening. No wonder the Chinese are so enthusiastic about creating gardens with natural landscapes, or constructing natural landscapes in urban gardens.
2. Simulated wonderland.
As early as more than 2,000 years ago, Qin Shihuang sent people to the legendary Three Immortals Mountains in the East China Sea - Penglai, Fangzhang, and Yingzhou several times to obtain the elixir of immortality, but all failed. Therefore, he built Penglai Mountain in his Lanchi Palace to imitate the fairyland to express his strong desire for eternal life. Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty inherited and carried forward this tradition. In the Taiye Pool of Jianzhang Palace in Shanglin Garden, there are three immortal mountains, Penglai, Fangzhang and Liuzhou. Since then, the tradition of "one pool and three mountains" has been created.
3. Move the sky and shrink the earth.
An important feature of Chinese tradition is to express infinite connotation in a limited space. During the Song Dynasty, Emperor Huizong's Genyue Mountain was once praised as "encompassing the beauty of the world, hiding the beauty of the past and the present". The "Jiuzhou Qingyan" in the Old Summer Palace of the Qing Dynasty condensed the territory of China into a small landscape unit to embody the idea that "the whole world is not the king." Wen Zhenheng, a gardener in the Ming Dynasty, also emphasized the gardening intention in "Zhi of Changwu" that "a peak can bring thousands of thousands of flowers, and a spoon can spread thousands of miles of rivers and lakes".
4. Poetic and picturesque.
Landscape poems and landscape paintings in traditional Chinese culture profoundly express people’s thoughts on mountains and rivers, their pursuit of detachment, and their harmony with nature. Therefore, the artistic conception of landscape poetry and landscape painting has become one of the goals of traditional Chinese garden creation. Xie Lingyun, a scholar in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, pursued "the surrounding mountains, the crisscrossing streams, the beauty of the water, rocks, bamboos, and the beauty of the rocks and cliffs" when building his manor. The poet Bai Juyi of the Tang Dynasty built a thatched cottage in Lushan and was obsessed with "looking up at the mountains." , listening to the spring, looking at the bamboo trees, clouds and stones" the artistic conception. In gardens, this poetic and picturesque feeling is especially expressed in the form of couplets, plaques or stone carvings, which play a role in highlighting the scenery. The art of calligraphy has also formed an indissoluble bond with gardens and has become an indispensable part of gardens.
5. Unique form.
Traditional Chinese gardens do not seem to emphasize obvious, symmetrical axis relationships in layout, but in fact they show an exquisite sense of balance and a strong sense of wholeness. One of the important reasons why Chinese traditional gardens can be distinguished from foreign gardens is the uniqueness of their overall form. In this natural garden, imitating the natural mountain and water potential, timeless and unique architectural shapes and structures, colorful trees and flowers, and winding garden roads, they form a series of landscapes that interweave people's emotions and dreams. , unexpected garden space.
6. Excellent gardening techniques.
In the garden creation activities of ancient Chinese gardeners, the first job was to look at the land, that is, to analyze the favorable and unfavorable factors inside and outside the garden site based on Feng Shui theory; and then based on this, the so-called Conceive, determine the theme and content to be expressed, and adapt the scene to the situation. The next step is to use techniques such as borrowing scenery, blocking scenery, contrasting scenery, and framing scenery to rationally layout and organize the spatial sequence of the four elements of gardening. Finally, the details are carefully considered. At this time, the gardener must skillfully handle the shape, direction, and shape of the mountain. Changes in slope, convexity and concavity, the position of main peaks and secondary peaks, the size, shape and combination of pools, the use of islands, embankments and bridges, the shape of individual buildings and the shape and combination of groups, the types and planting methods of garden plants , the direction of the garden road and the materials used, etc. A series of specific issues. In fact, in addition to designing drawings, ancient Chinese gardeners spent more time on the construction site of the garden to specifically guide the construction, so as to ensure the implementation of the design intention. execution, and facilitates improvisation.
Ji Cheng (1582~?), a master gardener of the Ming Dynasty in China, wrote the book "Garden Ye", which incisively discussed the important gardening techniques of traditional Chinese gardens. This is China's first gardening monograph, which has great significance across the ages and serves as a link between the past and the future.
The aesthetic experience of traditional Chinese gardens is multi-faceted and multi-layered. For example, the whole park is divided into several scenic spots, each with its own characteristics and connected with each other. It often maintains an intermittent and continuous relationship through leaky windows, door openings, bamboo forests, rockeries, etc., becoming borrowed scenes from each other, and also contributes to the transformation of scenic spots during the tour. bedding. Several bonsais and flower stands are often placed in various scenic spots, which seem to bear witness to the vicissitudes of history, the desolation of the world, and the tenacity of life. Of course, a good garden also has a good name and several couplets to be passed down from generation to generation. Confucian scholars have always paid attention to "little words and big ideas". A good name can have profound meanings and endless taste. For example, in the Suzhou Net Master Garden, the so-called "Net Master" is another name for the fisherman. In ancient Chinese culture, the fisherman has the meaning of living in seclusion in the mountains and forests, and also has the meaning of a wise politician. The lyricism of Jialian's scenic spots makes the scene in front of you and the emotion in your heart blend into one, making the garden more charming.
Chinese Royal Gardens
From the oracle bone inscriptions of the Yin and Shang Dynasties (16th to 11th centuries B.C.), the earliest text discovered so far, we have found information about the "囿" of the royal gardens. According to the discussion, relevant experts speculate that Chinese royal gardens began in the Yin and Shang Dynasties. According to the Zhou Dynasty historical material "Zhou Li", the royal gardens at that time appeared in the form of enclosures, that is, within a certain natural environment, animals were released, trees were planted, ponds were dug and platforms were dug, for the royal family to hunt, have fun, and communicate with the gods. and production purposes. The famous royal garden at that time was the spiritual confinement of King Wen of Zhou Dynasty.
During the Qin and Han dynasties (221 BC to 220 BC), royal gardens appeared in the form of landscape palaces, that is, the royal palaces and villas were combined with the natural landscape environment, covering hundreds of acres in radius. inside. The Xin Palace and Afang Palace built by Qin Shihuang in Weinan, Shaanxi Province were not only laid out according to the celestial phenomena, but also "mountains spanned valleys, and complex roads were connected to each other." The palace was built on the top of Zhongnan Mountain, with Fanchuan as the pool in the palace. It was majestic and spectacular. Qin Shihuang sent people several times to the legendary Three Immortals Mountains in the East China Sea - Penglai, Fangzhang and Yingzhou to seek the elixir of immortality. He built Penglai Mountain in the pool of his Lanchi Palace to express his yearning for fairyland. Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty built Shanglin Garden on the basis of the Qin Dynasty. Extensive construction work was carried out to expand it into Shanglin Garden, a royal garden with a grand scale and more diverse functions. Shanglin Garden in the Han Dynasty was the first climax of the construction of Chinese royal gardens. In Shanglin Garden, there were not only royal residences and places to enjoy the natural beauty, but also zoos, botanical gardens, hunting areas, and even places for horse racing and dog racing. In the Taiye Pool of Jianzhang Palace in Shanglinyuan, there are Penglai, Fangzhang and Yingzhou Sanxian Mountains. From then on, the practice of "one pond and three mountains" in Chinese royal gardens continued until the Qing Dynasty.
During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties (220-589 AD), the development of royal gardens was at a turning point, although in terms of scale It is not as good as the landscape palace garden of Qin and Han Dynasties, but it has some inheritance and development in content. For example, Gaowei in the Northern Qi Dynasty built mountains to symbolize the five mountains, and built "poor villages" and "buying and selling streets" to experience folk life.
During the Sui and Tang Dynasties (581-907), royal gardens tended to be gorgeous and exquisite. The Xiyuan in the Sui Dynasty and the Forbidden Garden in the Tang Dynasty were both royal gardens with ingenious landscape architecture, exquisite architectural structures, and a wide variety of animals and plants. Gardens.
In the Song Dynasty (960-1279), the development of royal gardens reached another climax. This is the Genyue located in Tokyo, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty. The Genyue built by Emperor Huizong of the Song Dynasty was built on flat land. The large-scale artificial rockery is an example of imitating the beauty of the mountains and rivers of China. It is also a representative work of the freehand landscape garden. At this time, the materials and construction technology of the rockery reached a very high level during the Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties. (1271-1911) The construction of royal gardens matured. At this time, the gardening art achieved another leap on the basis of inheriting tradition. Famous gardens such as the Summer Palace, Beihai, Summer Resort, and Old Summer Palace appeared during this period. The Summer Palace, a northern royal garden with mountains in the north and water in the south, has reached an admirable level in terms of site selection, concept, borrowed scenery, landscape structure shaping, architectural layout and technology, rockery technology, plant arrangement, and even the paving of garden paths. On the basis of imitating the style of the West Lake, Jichang Garden and Suzhou Water Town in the south, the large-scale Buddhist Incense Pavilion and its main axis control the whole garden, highlighting the will of "the whole world is not the king's land". Developed from the tradition of "one pool and three mountains", Qionghua Island in the North Sea was built as a replica of "Penglai". Therefore, Qionghua Island in the morning mist often gives people the feeling of a fairyland, and uses its natural shape to capture the scenery. Therefore, the style of the entire villa is simple and elegant without dazzling colors. Among them, the more than ten groups of garden buildings in the mountainous area are examples of mountain-based structures. The Old Summer Palace is located on flat land and utilizes abundant water resources. Digging ponds and stacking mountains formed a collection-style royal garden with a multi-layered landscape structure. In addition, the Yuanmingyuan also introduced Western gardening art and technology for the first time in the history of Chinese gardening.
The prosperity of the royal garden depends on it. Two factors. On the one hand, the feudal emperors at this time fully accepted the aesthetic taste and gardening theory of Jiangnan private gardens, which originally had a secular tendency that was somewhat separated from the mainstream culture. Conducting government affairs in gardens or palaces is even euphemistically called: "avoiding the noise and listening to government affairs."
On the other hand, royal gardens pursue grandeur and imperial power. This led to the finalization of the "garden within a garden" pattern. Among the dozens or even hundreds of scenic spots within all royal gardens, there are bound to be imitations of some Jiangnan miniature gardens and tolerance of Buddhist and Taoist temples.
Therefore, since the Northern and Southern Dynasties, private gardens have been consciously small and elegant. Some intellectuals even referred to the garden as "the sky in the pot" based on the stories made up by the alchemists. Let people see the big in the small. The "Heaven and Earth in a Pot" created by Chinese intellectuals has left a whole set of aesthetic tastes and garden-building traditions to this nation, as well as a large number of extremely precious cultural heritages.
Although Confucian intellectuals are not as passive and reclusive as Taoist intellectuals. But there is also a clear-headed choice to "hidden when the truth is unclear". Therefore, they also need an environment that can compete with feudal power. This environment does not need to be large, luxurious, or too many buildings. Instead, it needs to create an atmosphere of seclusion amidst the hustle and bustle of the city, allowing them to live a simple life. They continue to hone their will and virtue. Once the world is clear and a wise king appears, they can come back immediately. What's more important is that here they can directly communicate with the way of heaven without the intermediary of false imperial power. This is of course also a good place to go in line with their social ideals of life. Taking Confucius' praise of Yan Hui as a guide, they "drink with one ladle and eat with one basket" in small gardens ("Spoon Garden", "Hu Garden", "Mustard Seed Garden", "Remnant Grain Garden", etc.), Be happy without changing your mind and wait firmly. As the saying goes, "Being in the mountains and forests, thinking about Wei Que", the half-acre square garden at this time became "Kong Yan's happy place". Frustrated scholar-bureaucrats can "get together with three couplets of literature and wine, meet each other, and learn about the present and the past; the mist hides ten Huts, and they lie and swim beside the mountains and rivers." In this case, the garden not only accounts for the building area The proportions are very small, and the individual buildings are not large. The roofs are often made of gray tiles and rolled roofs. The decoration is simple and no colorful paintings are used. However, they are elegant and profound, including literary and artistic works (blades, couplets, stones, poems, calligraphy and painting). The number and profound meanings are unmatched by royal buildings.
The aesthetic taste of private gardens was later absorbed by the royal family, and the construction of some religious temples, especially Chinese Buddhist temples, was also greatly influenced by it; and once some Confucian intellectuals became local officials . Some country parks and gardens or a small number of garden-style buildings will also be built in due course for citizens to go out and enjoy the scenery. This kind of garden or architecture is even more similar to private gardens. For example, the formation of Hangzhou West Lake Scenic Area is related to the famous poet Su Dongpo who served as an official here twice. He successively dredged the West Lake, built Su embankments, built stone lighthouses, and built various pavilions. It has a lot to do with the fact that he left a large number of poems praising the West Lake. Therefore, understanding the beauty of private gardens can further understand the beauty of Chinese gardens and intuitively understand another important aspect of traditional Chinese culture that is different from official ideology.