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Accounts and legends about China’s mechanical tradition have been circulated around the world for a long time, attracting the attention and curiosity of technicians and literati of all ages. During the Three Kingdoms period, Ma Jun once again invented the compass and the overturning cart of his predecessors. In the late Ming Dynasty, Wang Zheng tried to restore the compass, wooden ox and flowing horse, etc. Wang Zhen wrote "Nongshu·Agricultural Instruments Atlas", Xue Jingshi wrote "Zi Ren Legacy System", and Song Yingxing wrote "Tiangong Kaiwu", which recorded the machinery they knew. The artist's work also preserves technical information about ancient machinery. For example, "Turn the Wheel at the Gate" of the Five Dynasties carefully draws water mills, and "Along the River During the Qingming Festival" depicts ships, vehicles, bridges and other technologies in Bianliang (now Kaifeng), the capital of the Song Dynasty.
Chinese ancient machinery attracted the attention of foreign scholars earlier. Since 1909, Giles, Moule, Lanchester and others first speculated on the transmission mechanism of the compass [1] (P52). After the 1920s, Chinese historians, mechanical engineers and cultural experts began literature research and special research on ancient Chinese machinery. In 1925, Zhang Yinlin translated British Moore's paper "A Study on the Construction Method of Guide Carts of Wu Deren and Yansu Song Dynasty", and wrote "The Construction Method of Ligu Carts of Lu Daolong and Wu Deren in Song Dynasty", which was published in "Journal of Tsinghua University". In 1935, Liu Xianzhou published "Historical Materials of Chinese Mechanical Engineering" at Tsinghua University, which initially compiled the descriptions of machinery in ancient Chinese books. Wang Zhenduo tried to restore ancient mechanical devices based on records in ancient documents. In 1936, he published "Speculations on the Manufacturing Method of the Zhanghenghou Wind and Seismograph of the Han Dynasty" in "Journal of Yanjing Academic Journal", and restored the compass car and Jiligu car at the Peking Research Institute [2] (P63). These early works pioneered the study of the history of mechanical engineering in China.
After 1949, the history of science and technology became an organized undertaking in China, achieved initial institutionalization, and research work made great progress. Among them, the work of Liu Xianzhou and Wang Zhenduo represents the academic level of mechanical engineering history [3] (P36).
From 1950 to 1960, Liu Xianzhou carried out special research on mechanical motive power, timers, gears, cams and other aspects. Based on these studies, he wrote the general historical works "History of the Invention of Mechanical Engineering in China" [4] (Part 1) and "History of the Development of Ancient Chinese Agricultural Machinery" [5], which initially outlined the general development of China's mechanical technology. The book contains research results on columbians, windlasses, wheelbarrows, etc. Later, Mr. Liu organized scholars to search for clues and descriptions of ancient machinery from more than 20,000 ancient books, leaving a large number of cards. In recent years, scholars from Tsinghua University Library have compiled these materials.
Restoration is an important aspect of the study of ancient mechanical history. Wang Zhenduo and others have been engaged in special research and restoration of ancient mechanical history for a long time. On the basis of document analysis and archaeological discoveries, he restored mechanical devices such as seismographs, compasses, drum carts, water transport instruments, and water drainage for the China History Museum. The main results are included in his collection "Archaeology of Science and Technology" [6].
The British Joseph Needham paid attention to the comparison of Eastern and Western civilizations, examined the spread of machinery and technology in ancient China, and also explored the relationship between mechanical technology and other knowledge. He referred to the research results of Chinese and Western scholars, and with the assistance of Wang Ling, wrote the mechanical engineering volume of the "History of Science and Technology in China" [7]. The book was first published in 1965 and was later translated into Japanese and Chinese. It is an important window for foreign scholars to understand the tradition of Chinese mechanical technology [8].
After Liu Xianzhou, there is still progress in the special research and investigation of the history of mechanical engineering. Lu Jingyan of Tongji University has made new progress in the research on the restoration of ancient weapons and other mechanical devices, as well as the investigation of traditional machinery such as vertical-axis windmills. Research on traditional Chinese metal crafts by the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the University of Science and Technology Beijing, and research on Qinling bronze chariots and horses by Northwest Agricultural University and other units have all achieved important research results.
In the 1990s, when the Institute of Natural Science History of the Chinese Academy of Sciences organized historians of science and technology across the country to write the "History of Science and Technology in China" series to showcase the research results of Chinese scholars for decades, Lu Jingyan, Hua Jueming and other scholars compiled the book. Mechanical volume of the series [9]. This book inherits the ideas of Chinese scholars such as Liu Xianzhou and Wang Zhenduo, appropriately refers to the works of Joseph Needham and other scholars, and makes progress in both technical content and analysis of structural principles.
The monographs written by Liu Xianzhou, Wang Zhenduo, Joseph Needham, Lu Jingyan and Hua Jueming are mainly based on records in ancient books, archaeological data and some survey data on traditional machinery. Future research on the history of ancient Chinese mechanical engineering can also make efforts in several aspects. First, excavate, organize and interpret historical materials in Chinese classics and documents in certain ethnic minority languages during the Ming and Qing dynasties; second, make full use of existing and future archaeological excavation data to carry out scientific and technological archaeological research; third, conduct extensive and in-depth The first is to conduct an in-depth investigation of existing traditional machinery and explore their relationship with the cultural background; fourth, to carry out research on the social history, cultural history and intellectual history of technology.
China has a continuous cultural tradition and has preserved a large number of ancient books. Records about ancient machinery are scattered in various genres of books. However, most of the written descriptions or drawings about technology are too brief, often only a few words, or even no records can be found. Archaeological discoveries can provide some reliable first-hand information, but their content is obviously limited. Most ancient machines are made of wood, bamboo and other materials that are not easy to preserve for a long time. Only a few parts are made of stone and metal. This makes it very rare for us to find machinery with a relatively complete structure in archaeological data. Discoveries like ancient vehicles and bronze chariots and horses are, after all, rare.
2 The value and role of the history of ancient Chinese mechanical engineering technology
China's mechanical engineering technology has formed its own unique style during the long historical development process. Ancient Chinese mechanical engineering technology is an integral part of the world's mechanical history and occupies an important position in the history of world mechanical engineering.
The famous science historian Joseph Needham once pointed out when discussing the exchange and comparison of science and technology between China and the West: "There are a few basic technologies that have spread in all directions from ancient Mesopotamia... However, the Chinese There are many inventions. These inventions spread to Europe and other areas from the first century to the eighteenth century, including: (1) keel wheels; (2) the application of stone rollers and water power; 3. water drainage. ; (4) Fan car and winnowing machine; (5) Piston bellows; (6) Flat loom (which may also be an Indian invention) and jacquard loom; (7) Reeling, spinning and adjusting machines; ( 8) Wheelbarrow; (9) Sailed cart; (10) Mill cart; (11) Two types of efficient harness for hauling heavy animals, namely breast straps and bags; (12) Crossbows (13) Kites; (14) ) Bamboo serpentines and revolving lanterns; (15) Deep drilling technology; (16) Use of cast iron; (17) Swimming horizontal hangers; (18) Curved arch bridges; (19) Iron cable suspension bridges; (20) River gates; (21) Numerous inventions in shipbuilding and shipping, including waterproof bulkheads, efficient aerodynamic sails, and front and rear rigging (22) Rudders at the stern; (23) Gunpowder and some technologies related to it; (24) Compass needles, First used for Feng Shui, and later for navigation; (25) Paper, printing and movable type printing; (26) Porcelain All these examples have one thing in common, which is the period in which they were used in China. It is indeed earlier than the period when they appeared in other parts of the world.”[10](P545) Most of the examples cited by Dr. Needham are mechanical inventions or related technological achievements in ancient China. It can be seen that the mechanical technological achievements of ancient China not only occupy a prominent position in the history of Chinese science and technology, but also their position in the history of world machinery and even science and technology cannot be underestimated.
The historical value of China’s mechanical history is also reflected in the fact that traditional mechanical engineering technology occupied a very important position in the socio-economic and scientific and technological development of ancient China. China has been founded on agriculture since ancient times, and agricultural production has always occupied a core position in the development of ancient history. Therefore, agricultural machinery, as a tool for agricultural production, plays an extremely important role in production.
A large number of inventions, innovations and their promotion and application in agricultural machinery technology have played a great role in improving social productivity. Similarly, machinery also plays an important role in water conservancy projects, construction projects, transportation, textiles and other fields. Mechanical technology plays a decisive role in the military. The manufacturing of advanced and sophisticated weapons and military equipment depends on advanced mechanical technology. Ancient China was able to achieve many important achievements in astronomical observation, which are inseparable from the role of advanced astronomical instruments. The emergence of many advanced astronomical instruments reflects the development of precision machinery manufacturing technology in ancient China. "Tiangong Kaiwu" compiled by Song Yingxing of the Ming Dynasty is an encyclopedia about ancient Chinese engineering technology. The content about mechanical technology accounts for more than half of the book, which also illustrates the important position of mechanical technology in ancient engineering technology. Therefore, traditional mechanical technology is rooted in various fields of ancient Chinese social life and production. The progress of mechanical technology not only promoted the development of production and enriched ancient social life, but also became a powerful tool to promote the development of science and technology in different fields in ancient times.
1. Promoted the progress of agriculture
China has been founded on agriculture since ancient times, and agricultural production has always occupied a core position in the development process of ancient history. Therefore, agricultural machinery as a tool for agricultural production has always played a key role in the development of agriculture. The role in production is extremely important. A large number of inventions, innovations and their promotion and application in agricultural machinery have played a great role in improving social productivity.
In the Spring and Autumn Period, ironware began to be used in agriculture and handicraft production. By the Warring States Period, there were already many iron farm tools, marking a significant increase in social productivity. Oxen farming was already used in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was promoted during the Warring States Period, promoting further development of agricultural production. During the Warring States Period, farmers attached great importance to the use of fertilizers, and also paid attention to seed selection, adapting measures to local conditions, and timely cultivation. At that time, water conservancy projects were built in various countries. Dujiangyan, built by Li Bing, the governor of Qin Shu County, is a world-famous flood control and irrigation project in the middle reaches of the Minjiang River. Dujiangyan eliminated flooding in the Minjiang River, irrigated large areas of farmland, and turned the Chengdu Plain into fertile land. It has been benefiting the people for more than two thousand years. Jia Sixie of the Northern Dynasty wrote the book "Essential Techniques for Qi Min", which emphasized that agricultural production must follow the laws of nature. Crops must be planted according to the location without delaying the farming season. Production techniques and tools must also be reformed.
2. Promoted the prosperity of handicraft industry and commerce
As early as the Spring and Autumn Period, my country had invented pig iron smelting technology 1,900 years earlier than Europe. In the late Spring and Autumn Period, the Jin State cast its written criminal law on an iron tripod and promulgated it. During the Warring States Period, there were more than 30 iron mines. At that time, the salt boiling industry, textile industry and lacquerware industry all made significant progress. "Tiangong Kaiwu" compiled by Song Yingxing, a scientist in the late Ming Dynasty, summarized the agricultural and handicraft production technologies of the Ming Dynasty and reflected the production appearance of my country's handicraft factories during the Ming Dynasty. The scissors of Wang Mazi in Beijing and Zhang Xiaoquan in Hangzhou were introduced, using the technology of "steel clamping" and "steel pasting"; gas can be eliminated during coal mining; jacquard machines in the textile industry, etc. These were the best in the world at that time.
3. Plays an important role in water conservancy projects, construction projects, transportation, textiles and other fields
Dujiangyan in the Qin Dynasty is a world-famous flood control and irrigation project. It divided the Minjiang River into inner rivers and Waijiang. The inner river is used for irrigation and the outer river is used for flood diversion, which avoids floods and irrigates farmland. Zhaozhou Bridge, designed and constructed by Li Chun, an outstanding craftsman of the Sui Dynasty, is the oldest existing stone arch bridge in the world. There are two small arches above each end of the large arch of the bridge, which can reduce the pressure of the weight of the bridge body on the bridge foundation and reduce the impact of rapids on the bridge body in case of floods. The famous architect Yu Wenkai of the Sui Dynasty designed the Sui capital Daxing City and Tokyo Luoyang City, and directed the construction of the two cities. By the Northern Song Dynasty, compasses were used in navigation. The ships of the Song Dynasty were equipped with compass needles, which could identify the direction no matter day or night, rain or fog. During the Southern Song Dynasty, the compass was introduced to Europe, providing important conditions for European navigators to sail around the world and discover new continents.
4. Plays a decisive role in the military
Mechanical technology plays a decisive role in the military. The manufacturing of advanced and sophisticated weapons and military equipment depends on advanced mechanical technology . In the late Tang Dynasty, gunpowder began to be used in military affairs. During the Song Dynasty, gunpowder was widely used in military affairs.
China's large-scale soda ash plant design and equipment manufacturing can be fully based in China, and it has begun to export complete sets of large-scale soda ash technology and equipment.
In 1984, China introduced ionic membrane electrolyzer manufacturing technology and provided equipment to 14 manufacturers, accounting for 70% of domestic ionic membrane coal caustic soda capacity. In 1993, China innovatively developed a Chinese-style electrolyzer, which was developed by China Chemical Equipment China's first domestically produced 10,000 t/a ion membrane caustic soda plant organized and implemented by the head office was completed in Cangzhou Chemical Plant on July 27, 1993. It was successfully put into production at the first time and passed the national acceptance. This set of equipment has been improved and innovated on the basis of extensive digestion and absorption of domestic and foreign advanced technologies. The process design was carried out by Tianjin Dagu Chemical Plant Design Institute. The core equipment includes 82 finalized equipment, 127 non-standard equipment, ion The membrane electrolyzer was designed and manufactured by Beijing Chemical Machinery Factory, reaching the level of similar foreign devices at the same time. Other special equipment, materials, instruments, and valves were provided by relevant domestic manufacturers. The localization rate of the entire device reached more than 90%. This set of equipment operates in a balanced and reliable manner, with the characteristics of high product purity, energy saving, high efficiency, and no environmental pollution. The main technical and economic indicators have reached the level of imported equipment. The successful construction of this device has ended China's dependence on imports for ion membrane caustic soda production equipment, marking that China has basically possessed the complete manufacturing capability for ion membrane caustic soda equipment. Since then, chemical plants in Guangzhou, Xinjiang, Baotou, Bengbu, and Yunnan have all used domestic electrolyzers for ion membrane caustic soda.