Introduction to Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherer Society
Hunter-gatherer societies are – as their shockingly descriptive name suggests – cultures in which humans obtain food by hunting, fishing, scavenging, and gathering wild plants and other foods. While hunter-gatherer groups still exist in our modern world, we'll focus here on prehistoric societies that relied on nature's bounty, before the transition to agriculture began about 12,000 years ago.
Prehistoric hunter-gatherers usually lived in groups of dozens, consisting of several family units. They developed tools to help them survive and relied on the abundance of food in the area, if one area was not plentiful enough they needed to move to greener forests (where pastures were not yet available). It is likely that in general, men hunted and women foraged.
Right away, it's important to realize that the diversity among hunter-gatherer societies was so great throughout time that no single, overarching characteristic can be attributed to them. The earliest hunter-gatherers had very different adaptations to their environment than later groups, closer to the transition to agriculture. The path to increasing complexity—what we tend to think of as the hallmark of “modernity”—is a difficult but interesting one to follow. For example, tools became increasingly developed and specialized, producing a vast array of shapes that enabled hunter-gatherers to become increasingly adept at exploiting their environment.
If anything meaningful can be said about prehistoric hunter-gatherers and their way of life, their development and adaptation over time must be emphasized. This will give us a glimpse into how different people interact with their environment in different ways.
Our genus Homo first developed in the vast space of Africa, where hunter-gatherers first appeared. ?
The Ice and Stone Age
First, it will be useful to explain some of the terms used to describe the time when hunter-gatherers roamed the earth. Geologically speaking, the era from about 2.6 million years ago to about 12,000 years ago is known as the Pleistocene, based on the repeated cycles of glaciation (or ice ages) during this time. Archaeologically, the Paleolithic Age falls within the same time frame as the Pleistocene Epoch, based on Stone Age cultures. The Paleolithic Age is further subdivided into the Early or Upper Paleolithic (approximately 2.6 million years ago - approximately 250,000 years ago), starting with the first identifiable stone tools discovered to date; the Middle Paleolithic (approximately 250,000 years ago) years ago - about 30,000 years ago); and the Upper or Upper Paleolithic (about 50,000/40,000 - about 10,000 years ago), which ended with the end of the Ice Age and agriculture began to take over. Dates overlap here and there, as some cultures lasted longer in some areas, while others had developed to the point where they matched the characteristics of the next era. Stop and think about it, while we might think that our technologically advanced, industrialized world has been around for a long time, the Paleolithic era actually accounts for about 99% of human technological history.
The First Hunter-Gatherers
Our genus Homo first developed in the vast space of Africa, where hunter-gatherers first appeared. In some hotspots the land apparently provided opportunities for quite lush life, and the remains of several different groups that lived there at different times are often found. In southern Africa, sites such as Swartkrans Cave and Sterkfontein show more than one occupation, although they are much younger than those in East Africa, and the earliest known human-made stone tools date back to BC, in or near Ethiopia. 2.6 million years ago – discovered. One of the oldest sites is Lake Turkana in Kenya: it was already home to our presumed ancestor Australopithecus, to which the famous Lucy belongs, and it indeed remained a popular site for a long time place.
Dependence on the environment
From humanity’s early beginnings in Africa to its spread to Eurasia and later the rest of the world, all of this exploration across vastly different terrains was accomplished through Hunting and gathering what the land has to offer are accomplished while living on the land. Looking at flora and fauna, the amount of food directly affects the number of people the environment can support. If food was plentiful, resident groups of hunter-gatherers were more likely to stay in the same place, find ways to store food efficiently, and protect their territories from competing groups. Or, if a group doesn't have enough food nearby, it means they have to move around and live a more nomadic lifestyle to make ends meet. If this sounds like too much of a piece of cake, imagine that the environment, its topography, and weather (think droughts or big storms) often tried to kill these early humans with the help of animals with teeth and claws bigger than them. Fortunately, prehistoric societies consisted of groups or bands of dozens of people, often representing several families, who helped each other survive in nature.
Nearly 2 million years ago, early groups of Homo erectus were likely the first to venture into the New World, spreading as far as Eurasia, China and Indonesia.
The geographical range of early humans was so wide that it is useful to elaborate a little. A huge continent like Africa already has a variety of different landscapes in its own right, and while generally a certain amount of sunlight and heat would have been part of the deal, once humans expanded beyond its borders, an entirely new kind of adaptation became available. necessary. Early groups of Homo erectus were likely the first to venture into the New World nearly 2 million years ago, spreading to Eurasia, China, and Indonesia about 2 million years ago. 1,7-c. 1.6 million years ago, although some older finds - tools made by unknown species - spanning about 26-2 million years are also known from these areas. These help illustrate how complex the history of early human migration must have been. Europe was probably not explored until much later. Although the Mediterranean saw some tentative human activity a million years ago, it was not until about 700,000 years ago that intrepid travelers (usually thought to be Homo heidelbergensis) dared to challenge the major mountain ranges. Once they cross, they thrive. Neanderthals later evolved from this population, themselves eventually expanding from their original European homeland into the Near East and parts of Central Asia, as far as the Altai region of Siberia, where the remains of their sister species, the Denisovans , was also found. By the end of the Middle Paleolithic, nearly the entire Old World was covered by some form of humankind. By the end of the Pleistocene, Asian island countries, Australia and the New World will also have been conquered by humans. As our planet was covered, we eventually learned to adapt to any environment.
Genetic studies are doing their best to get closer to a coherent picture of how quiet or busy the world was generally during the Pleistocene. Not yet, but non-genetic estimates of around 500,000 individuals are consistent with many recent genetic results. Generally speaking, these areas are not very densely populated. One might wonder what a prehistoric man or woman would have thought of what we call modernity today, which has given rise to many heavily polluted cities. ?
Shelters
In most cases, these prehistoric hunter-gatherers would have used natural shelters as living spaces; overhanging cliffs could provide a place to shelter from wind and rain, and caves were very Popular because it is possible to create comfortable living spaces in it, mainly close to the entrance to maintain daylight. However, more open sites exposed to the elements were also found.
The living space of the earliest hunter-gatherers was very crude and unclear in structure. However, throughout the Middle Paleolithic, designated areas for certain activities slowly became apparent, especially during the Upper Paleolithic. Fireplaces began to appear in settlements as humans harnessed the control and habitual use of fire dating back at least about 400,000 years ago. Some of these sites even show the beginnings of long-distance transport, as some raw materials could only get there if transported from 100 kilometers or more. In addition, Middle Paleolithic hunter-gatherers relied almost entirely on natural refuges. Evidence of man-made shelters remains extremely rare.
During the Upper Paleolithic, humans became increasingly creative and organized, as man-made structures were now much more creative than before. They provide an alternative to cave living that is still very popular, but of course caves are not everywhere, and they are so popular among cave bears and cave lions that they get their name. As a result, some societies built huts or tents with wooden supports or even mammoth bones to form structures that were also illuminated by the light of the hearth and had clear architectural features that organized space into designated areas. Furthermore, long-distance transport of materials and tools was more common than in the Middle Paleolithic. However, it is in caves that continue to be useful that one of the greatest developments of the Upper Paleolithic can be seen: the Chauvet Cave or the famous Lascaux Cave, both in present-day France, offer some stunning examples of hunter-gatherer art. Often associated with symbolic ideas, it is this that greatly sets these later hunter-gatherers apart and forms part of the reason why they are often considered to be full-fledged modern humans.
All in all, as their technology developed and became more versatile, humans were able to navigate a variety of challenging environments, from hot deserts to dense forests and cold tundras.
Food
The exact types of food hunter-gatherers consumed obviously varied depending on the landscape and its resident flora and fauna. Some may focus on hunting impressive prehistoric megafauna such as giant horned deer or giant elk, woolly mammoths, and woolly rhinos, while others may focus on capturing small game or fishing. Although their name suggests an active stance, it's likely that hunter-gatherers also engaged in predatory behavior to some extent.
However, Africa's earliest humans were far removed from mammoth hunting, and not just because the time and geography didn't quite match up. As yet, they don't have the sophisticated hunting tools or strategies to capture such huge prey, but they do eat meat. However, after these people get the food, they still have to process it.
To do this, either powerful teeth were needed - strong molars to grind tough vegetation or bite into non-slaughtered meat - or tools to do it for them. In general, early humans evolved toward smaller teeth. As early as in species such as Homo rudolfensis, the molars were not as large as their ancestors, and later species such as Homo habilis and Homo erectus continued this trend. The teeth get smaller and the brain gets bigger. They compensated for their smaller teeth by developing a culture of stone tools, which allowed them to exploit their environment more efficiently than ever before. As a result, these humans became more omnivorous - and therefore more flexible and adaptable by adding more meat to their previously very green diet.
Because plant remains do not stand the test of time like the bones of butchered animals, it is often difficult to determine exactly what the vegetarian habits of our ancestors were like. However, a recent 2016 study has given us a rare look into the plant-based diet of people who lived in Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel, some 780,000 years ago. An astonishing 55 species of edible plants are found there, including seeds, fruits, nuts, vegetables and roots or tubers. The diversity suggests that these people were well aware of what edibles could be found in their environment, during which seasons, and reflects a diverse plant diet. In addition to vegetables, the diet of this particular hunter-gatherer society also included meat and fish. Furthermore, this group clearly used fire in food processing, whereas cooking and customary use of fire do not appear to have been widespread until about 500,000 - 400,000 years ago (see below). Whether the site simply housed a group of child prodigies, or whether more general conclusions can be drawn from it, is difficult to say—at least in light of its geography and time frame.
Further along the time scale, Middle Paleolithic sites show more evidence of the presence of local traditions and changes. As humans were now well established both within and outside Africa, and had spread across the far north and east, population density increased, which had an impact on the food available. Shackled by increased competition, hunters devised new tactics and began picking targets from a wider range than before. However, when they are available, prized large and medium-sized deer, horses, and bovine species such as bison and gazelles provide an opportunity too good to pass up. These are definitely at the top of the hunter-gatherer menu.
"The bigger the animal, the better" is a philosophy that definitely holds water when one is concerned with feeding a bunch of hungry humans leading active lives. To realize this dream, the time to live is the Late Pleistocene (approximately 120,000 - 10,000 years ago), especially in the main part of Eurasia, extending to Eastern Siberia. There, humans will find an astonishing array of megafauna, such as mammoths, woolly rhinos, Lena horses, and bison, in what is known as the "mammoth herd." Neanderthals, for example, certainly took advantage of this: they are known to have eaten large amounts of mammoth and rhinoceros meat, in addition to other meat from mammals such as bison, bison, reindeer, deer, goats and wild boars. Beyond this, various legumes and grasses, fruits, seeds and nuts often formed an important part of their diet, as it has always done for most hunter-gatherer societies. The idea that they were mostly carnivores (except for their early beginnings) has long been disproven. Recently, an interesting window opened in the northeast at a site called Shubayqa 1. Jordan. Archaeologists excavating a stone-lined hearth found fragments of an ancient unleavened bread there that was made by the human cultures that lived at the site some 14,400 years ago - as long as the area emerged Agriculture for 4,000 years.
Tools
First, it must be stated that the categories we propose for classifying ancient tools are only broad and rough indicators that cover some of the feature set. Tools had to function in their immediate environment and be made using products from that environment, rather than following some "creeping" trend that telepathically entered the minds of all early human tool makers.
The tools hunter-gatherers used to make their way of life possible have humble origins, dating back to about 2.6 million years ago with Aldovan technology (which lasted until about 1 million years ago) . Simple stone cores were used as choppers, hammer stones, and trimmed flake scrapers to cut meat from animals and access the nutrient-rich marrow inside, or to process plants and seeds. The adventurous wave of early Homo erectus brought this technology from Africa to Asia.
Meanwhile, in Africa, what we know as the Acheuleans (about 1.7 million years ago to about 250,000 years ago) had begun to evolve before arriving in Eurasia. It saw the development of tools into large, double-edged tools such as hand axes, picks, and meat cleavers, allowing Homo erectus, and later Homo heidelbergensis, greater control over their killing process. Although wood of this age typically does not survive, one site in Northern Europe suggests that wooden tools were likely also part of daily life among early hunter-gatherers, probably extending into the Middle Paleolithic.
The Homo heidelbergensis mentioned above is indeed very common and deserves special attention. They appeared in Africa around 700,000 years ago, are most commonly seen as descendants of Homo erectus (although this linear view is increasingly challenged), and appear to have spread to Europe around 500,000 years ago, where they remain today of England. At a site in Schöningen, Germany, at least 300,000 years old, Heidelberg shocked researchers: Eight elaborate wooden spears were found, along with flint tools and fragments. These weapons represent the earliest signs of active hunting and, interestingly, their targets: a number of horse bones with cut marks were also found at the site. Systematic hunting of large animals is no easy task, as it is difficult to imagine hunters succeeding in this way without cooperating decently with each other. In fact, the researchers believe that Homo heidelbergensis had been able to build very sophisticated tools for hunting not only large animals but also dangerous animals, which they say may indicate that they were involved in cooperative societies.
Tool use is now well established, with subsequent fine-tuning during the Middle Paleolithic; modified flake tools such as scrapers, pointed and back knives were developed by Homo sapiens, Neanderthals and The earliest anatomically made by the early precursors of modern humans. Then there was a huge proliferation in the Upper Paleolithic, where bladed tools were created alongside bone, antler and ivory artifacts, and even technological feats like spear throwers and bows and arrows began to appear. All in all, around the world, we are seeing more and more changes in the stone industry over time, which not only indicates increasing innovation over time, but also indicates the existence of stronger areas (substances) culture.
Fire as Catalyst
In addition to the development of tools, another huge change that has had an incredible impact on our species is the use of fire. Simply put, using fire meant that our ancestors could huddle around it for protection (wild animals are generally not very fond of fire) and for warmth, and it allowed them to cook their food - which had a range of amazing benefits. Fire thus plays a central role in human existence and catalyzes the process by which we define ourselves as "human."
The earliest evidence we have found so far of humans using fire dates back to more than a million years ago. ?
The earliest evidence we have found so far of humans using fire dates back to more than a million years ago. Fires have been burning around Lake Turkana since about 1.8 million years ago; sites show red patches, such as stones altered by heat, but early African sites show no signs of certain hearths. Indeed, throughout this early period, traces of fire on open fields in Africa remained very rare. Here, the use of fire may have more to do with exploiting natural fire, such as a forest fire or the aftermath of a particularly violent lightning strike, than with individuals actively creating and maintaining it.
It is difficult to trace exactly the way in which the use of fire gradually developed throughout time from its earliest beginnings. However, at least 400,000 years ago, it was clear that fire was known and used by bands of humans who roamed and established themselves in caves, not just in Africa but also in the Middle East and Europe. Clear evidence of hearths is found at the Acheulean level. These people were clearly skilled at maintaining and using fire. Over the next 100,000 years, the habitual and very intentional use of fire became evident, for example in the Middle East and even in open spaces in southern France. As such, it became a central part of the hunter-gatherer lifestyle.
Fire has important benefits. In addition to protection and warmth, which helped even the earliest rudimentary fire users survive, a major advantage was the ability to cook when the intentional use of fire began to become more common. Until about 500,000 years ago, cooking appears to have been rare among hunter-gatherer societies. Here's what happened when humans did transition to searing their bison steaks, etc. First, cooking softens food, making it easier to chew and digest, which means people can develop smaller teeth and shorter digestive systems, taking less time to digest food. Additionally, the traditional hunter-gatherer diet was so difficult to ingest and digest in its raw form that cooking it did represent a drastic change, aside from the caloric benefits. It also freed the brains of these early humans to grow to larger sizes than before; large brains were more complex, but also more expensive and required high-quality food. Of course, having larger and more complex brains meant humans could come up with better ways to maintain and use fire, develop better hunting strategies, and more. So, the cycle continues.
In general, fire also had an impact on the social aspects of these hunter-gatherer groups. Fire and the light it provided allowed hunter-gatherers to stay active even after sunset, extending their days and allowing more time for socializing, which was important in large groups. Modern humans spend nearly twice as long as many of their primate cousins.
Social Aspects
This prehistoric way of life, in which groups shared and organized living space and worked to keep everyone alive, clearly had some social aspect.
Research suggests that a social network structure in which ties extend not only to family members but also to non-relatives likely emerged very early in human history, and this social aspect may have helped inspire (increasingly intensive) cooperation . For example, the hunters at Schöningen, discussed above, belonging to Homo heidelbergensis, or at similar sites like Boxgrove and Arago, appear to have been so successful that they may have been able to obtain large quantities of meat. If this is the case, they may share or exchange food with other nearby groups, perhaps even at established gathering places.
Another huge benchmark is language use, whose origins are widely discussed and difficult to put on a timeline. Everything from some kind of communication to a primitive language-like system somewhere in the early forms of humanity to the full-fledged languages we use today all developed somewhere in these hunter-gatherer societies. In addition to organizing life in a group, being able to discuss your hunting strategies in detail, pinpoint the location of nearby predators, or wax poetic about a newly discovered blueberry bush nearby can make a difference.
The number of different human species represented through caricature in the space above should already indicate the diversity of hunter-gatherers: each species had different strengths and weaknesses, as well as different social structures, although Over time almost all of these humans embarked on the path that eventually led to agriculture. Exceptions? Some hunter-gatherer societies continue to this day.