What are the characteristics of tombs in ancient dynasties?
In Peiligang culture, Yangshao culture, Dawenkou culture and Longshan culture in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, most of the corpses are put into the tombs with their limbs straight, and occasionally their limbs bend and bend, which may be caused by violence. Majiayao culture and Qijia culture in the upper reaches of the Yellow River, besides straight limb burial, limb burial is also popular. Most of the bodies in Yangshao cultural tombs face west; Most of the bodies in Dawenkou cultural tombs face east. All these indicate that different tribes have different burial customs.
Neolithic tombs are generally small and shallow, and can only accommodate corpses. In the late Neolithic period, wooden coffins were used as burial tools in some areas. In the later period of Dawenkou culture, a few grave pits were large in area, and the pit walls were built with wood, covered with wood, forming wooden coffins, probably because the tomb owner had a special position in society. After the death of children, they are usually buried near the house or under the foundation of the house, and pottery is used as a burial tool, which is called "urn coffin burial".
Pottery is the most common funerary object in tombs, followed by stone tools and bones, and occasionally decorations, sometimes grains and livestock are found. In some cemeteries, there are many stone axes, shovels and knives in male tombs and many ceramic or spinning wheels in female tombs, which shows the division of labor between men and women in production activities. Due to different regions and tribes, the types and quantities of funerary objects in tombs vary from place to place. However, in the same cemetery, the number and thickness of funerary objects in each tomb are often not much different, which shows that the economic status of clan members in primitive society is equal. However, the polarization between the rich and the poor appeared in the later period. For example, in a few tombs in the late Dawenkou culture, there are as many as 100 pieces of pottery buried with them, and there are more than 10 pig heads, which shows that the owner's wealth far exceeds that of ordinary people.
Shang Dynasty was the heyday of China Bronze Age, and social productive forces developed rapidly. Slave owners and nobles headed by the king ruled a huge country. Therefore, the tomb system in Shang Dynasty was strictly divided into classes and grades, and the tombs of the ruling class were very large.
There are "Asian-shaped tombs" and "China-shaped tombs" in the Tomb of Anyang King. The tomb of the Asian-shaped tomb is a huge square or Asian-shaped vertical hole pit with a pyramid-shaped mound on each side. The largest Asian-shaped tomb in Houjiazhuang, with a tomb area of about 330 square meters, a total area of 1800 square meters and a depth of over 15 meters. A similar tomb was found in Yidu, Shandong Province, belonging to the prince or leader of Fang State. The tomb of the Han Dynasty is a rectangular pit with a pyramid-shaped mound on the north and south sides. The largest Han Tomb in Wuguan Village covers an area of nearly 170 square meters, with a total area of 340 square meters and a depth of more than 7 meters. In addition to the tombs, there are other Han tombs of nobles, but the scale is slightly smaller. Among the tombs of nobles, there is also an "A-shaped tomb". There is only a pyramid in the south of the tomb, which is generally smaller than the Han tomb. The vast majority of tombs in Shang Dynasty are rectangular vertical holes without tombs. Although the shapes are similar, the scales are quite different. Big noble's tomb covers an area of more than 20 square meters, such as Fu Hao's tomb of Shang Ding's spouse discovered in Xiaotun, Anyang. The tomb of ordinary small aristocrats is often less than 10 square meter. The tombs of civilians are smaller, and some are even less than 2 square meters.
The tombs of Shang kings and nobles at all levels are all made of wood. Asian-shaped tombs have Asian-shaped or planar squares. For other types of graves, the tomb plane is rectangular. The burial utensils for receiving the body are all wooden coffins, which are placed in the middle of the coffin room. The graves of civilians, some with coffins, some without coffins. The main way to place your body is to lean back and straighten your limbs. No matter whether it is a noble tomb or a civilian tomb, there is only one owner, and there is no case of husband and wife being buried together. The funerary objects in the tombs of princes and nobles at all levels in Shang Dynasty are extremely rich and exquisite. Including all kinds of bronzes, jades, pottery, lacquered wood, bone horns, etc. There are more than 460 bronzes, more than 750 jades, more than 560 bones and nearly 7,000 seashells (see color map, triptych map, even map, jade dragon map, jade eagle map, jade man map, jade dragon map and exotic bird map). It can be imagined that if the tombs of Shang kings were not stolen, their funerary objects should reach a more amazing level.
A feature of the tombs of the ruling class in Shang Dynasty is that a large number of people and animals are sacrificed. In the tombs of the king and big noble, there are dozens of martyrs, as many as 200 people, including the attendants of the tomb owner, maids and concubines, guards and various handymen. There is also a "human sacrifice" that is entirely for killing and martyrdom. Martyrs are buried in different ways, many of which are prone to burial. Horses and dogs are the most common sacrificed livestock. There is a rectangular pit in the middle of the bottom of all kinds of tombs, just below the waist of the owner's body, so it is called "waist pit", and a martyr or dog is buried in the pit. Even in the tombs of civilians, there are often waist pits where dogs are buried (see Shang Dynasty human sacrifices and human sacrifices).
A large piece of gravel was found on the tomb of an Asian-shaped tomb in Houjiazhuang, Anyang, which should be the cornerstone of the house. Houses and cornerstones made of rammed earth were found on two rectangular tombs, Fu Hao Tomb in Xiaotun, Anyang and Confucius Village in Dasi. It can be seen that houses are sometimes built on the ground, from royal tombs to tombs of ordinary nobles. They may be used for sacrifice, similar to the so-called "enjoying the hall" in later generations.
The burial system of the Western Zhou Dynasty in the Spring and Autumn Period was inherited from the Shang Dynasty. As the tomb has not yet been discovered, I wonder if there was an Asian tomb at that time. Some of the tombs of princes and nobles are Han-shaped tombs with two tombs, and some are "A-shaped tombs" with one tomb. Wei Guo Cemetery in Xunxian New Village, Henan Province is a multi-Chinese-shaped tomb with a shape similar to that of Shang Dynasty. Except for the two types of tombs mentioned above, most tombs have only rectangular tombs and no pyramid-shaped tombs. Their scale varies greatly because of the identity of the tomb owner. Like the Shang dynasty, there are many waist pits at the bottom of the tomb.
According to records, the coffin system of the Zhou Dynasty was strictly graded, that is, "the emperor's coffin weighed seven times, the vassal weighed five times, the doctor weighed three times, and the scholar weighed again". Archaeological excavations show that there are double coffins in some large and medium-sized tombs, which shows that the records are generally reliable. The funerary objects in the tombs of princes and nobles are still mainly bronze ritual vessels, but compared with the Shang Dynasty, there are fewer wine vessels and more food vessels. Among all kinds of utensils, Ding He is the most important. According to the etiquette system of the Zhou Dynasty, the emperor used Jiuding, the vassal used seven ding, the doctor used five ding, and the scholar used three ding or one ding. Eastern Zhou emperors used Jiuding, Qing used seven ding, doctors used five ding, and scholars used three ding or one ding. Used with Ding, Jiuding matches eight, seven Ding matches six, five Ding matches four and three Ding matches two. There are also clear rules. Archaeological excavations have also proved this point. For example, there are some large and medium-sized aristocratic tombs in Lingguo Cemetery, Shangcun, Shan County, Henan Province, with seven, five, three and one ding burials respectively, and the scale of the tombs has also decreased in turn. Among them, the "Seven Dings Tomb" has been confirmed as the tomb of Prince Guo.
Like the Shang Dynasty, there are often "chariots and horses pits" near the tombs of princes and nobles, and their scale depends on the identity of the tomb owner. Take the above-mentioned Guo cemetery as an example, there are 20 horses and 20 cars buried in the chariots and horses pit of Guo Wangling, 5 cars and 0 horses buried in the chariots and horses pit of two "Wuding Tombs". Hou Wei's Tomb in Xunxian County was buried with a total of 72 horses 12 vehicles. Martyrdom was still common in the early Western Zhou Dynasty, but decreased slightly after the middle period. But until the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, some tombs still used human sacrifices.
Excavation proved that there was a system of joint burial in the Western Zhou Dynasty, and the husband and wife were buried together in two adjacent tombs, which was called "joint burial in different caves". The tomb of Bo and his wife Jing Ji, discovered in Rujiazhuang, Baoji, Shaanxi Province in the middle of the Western Zhou Dynasty, provides evidence in this regard. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, this system of different caves being buried together became more common. For example, in the cemetery of the Jin Dynasty in the watershed of Changzhi, Shanxi, all the tombs of large and medium-sized nobles are in pairs, a man and a woman, undoubtedly husband and wife.
From the late Spring and Autumn Period to the Warring States Period, China entered the Iron Age. Around the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, China began to change from a slave society to a feudal society. This change is also reflected in the tomb system.
In the late Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, many tombs of the ruling class built mounds on the ground. Graves and mounds are generally made of rammed earth, some of which are square cone-shaped and some of which are unclear in shape. The highest existing one is more than ten meters. The "incense hall" built on the ground of Zhongshan King's Tomb in Pingshan, Hebei Province and Wei Guo's Cemetery in Guwei Village, Huixian County, Henan Province should be regarded as inheriting the old system since Shang Dynasty.
The tombs in the Warring States period still maintained the shape since the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, and some big tombs even retained waist pits. Some monarchs and big noble's tombs, such as King Zhongshan's tomb in Pingshan, Wang Wei's tomb in Huixian and Zhao's tomb in Handan, have pyramid-shaped tombs on both sides, which are similar to those in Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties. Some monarchs' tombs, such as Cai Hou's tomb in Shouxian County, Anhui Province, have only one tomb or no tomb, just like many nobles' tombs. The tomb of Zeng Houyi in Suizhou, Hubei Province, which was dug up in the rocks, is a rare special case, but it has no pyramid-shaped tomb and its shape is irregular. The tombs of princes and nobles are still popular today. In addition to horses and chariots, there is a boat pit near the tomb of King Zhongshan, where the boat is buried. At this time, tombs often pile up stones to reinforce them and deposit charcoal to keep out moisture. Wang Wei's Tomb in Huixian County contains a lot of sand to prevent theft. In southern Chu area, people generally fill coffins with white or gray clay to ensure the immortality of the body and funerary objects. Coffins still have a strict hierarchy. The tombs of princes and nobles use many coffins. The tomb of Zeng Houyi in Suizhou is huge and divided into four parts. Shuang Mu's coffin is painted beautifully.
Due to the development of production and handicraft industry, the funerary objects in aristocratic tombs have reached an unprecedented level in variety, quantity and quality. At that time, lacquerware was beautifully made, and its proportion in funerary objects increased obviously. However, ritual vessels and musical instruments are still regarded as the most important funerary objects by the ruling class. For example, there is a chime in the tomb of Zeng Houyi, with a total of 64 bells (see "Colorful Chimes (Eastern Zhou Dynasty)"), and there is also a chime with a total of 32 bells, which shows the grand occasion of princes' rites and music. Among the bronze ritual vessels, there are 9 pieces of "Ding Sheng"; A group of eight pieces is just in line with the monarch status of the tomb owner. The lower nobility and the upper common people are mostly buried in the tombs with pottery "ritual vessels" imitating bronze ritual vessels. Among a large number of small tombs of the Warring States period excavated in various places, there are few funerary objects, but there are a number of pottery similar to bronze, such as ding, beans, pots and so on. Only the Qin tombs in the Weihe River valley are an exception. The pottery in the tomb is an altar, box, jar, urn and other daily necessities. , not a ritual vessel. This may be due to the fact that Qin was less influenced by the ritual system and had its own funeral customs.
In the small tombs in Guanzhong and Central Plains in the late Warring States period, soil cave tomb with horizontal holes appeared, and a huge hollow brick tomb was also used to replace the wooden tomb. This kind of horizontal cave tomb and hollow brick tomb were not common at that time, but their appearance meant that the traditional tomb system had changed since Shang and Zhou Dynasties. In the late Spring and Autumn Period and the early Warring States Period, there was still the phenomenon of martyrdom in some tombs, but generally speaking, the Warring States Period was less common than the Shang Dynasty and the Western Zhou Dynasty. The custom of burying wooden figurines and pottery figurines is prevalent and can be regarded as a substitute for human sacrifice. Since Shang and Zhou Dynasties, the bodies of tomb owners are mostly straight limbs. During the Warring States Period, except for Chu in the south, the funeral of bent limbs was popular in Qin, Han, Wei, Zhao, Yan and other countries in the Yellow River valley to varying degrees. Especially in the western state of Qin, a large proportion of tombs are buried with bent limbs, in which the bodies lie on their sides and their limbs curl up. This may be influenced by a special burial custom in the upper reaches of the Yellow River since the Neolithic Age.
During the Qin and Han Dynasties, horizontal caves were widely used as tombs, and tombs were built with bricks and stones, imitating real-life houses in shape. This is an epoch-making change in China's ancient tomb system. This change mainly began in the middle of the Western Han Dynasty, first occurred in the Yellow River basin, and then spread to all parts of the country. In the Qin Dynasty and the early Western Han Dynasty, the aristocratic landlord class still used vertical hole earth pit tombs with wooden coffins. In the Yangtze River valley and remote areas in the north and south, vertical wooden tombs continued until the late Western Han Dynasty and even the early Eastern Han Dynasty. In Qin and Western Han Dynasties, wooden tombs with vertical holes, the coffin system followed the ritual system of Zhou Dynasty, and the hierarchy was strict. Some Han tombs also use the so-called "yellow intestine problem"
Get together. "
Among the noble tombs, the Han Tomb in Mancheng, Hebei Province and the Han Tomb in Jiulongshan, Qufu, Shandong Province can be regarded as the representatives of the newly-emerging Hengxue tombs in the middle of the Western Han Dynasty. They are huge caves drilled on the cliff, which are used as burial rooms, so they are called "cliff tombs", and their shapes and structures completely imitate houses. In the Yellow River valley and the northern region, the general horizontal cave tombs are underground earth caves with small scale and simple structure, and their owners belong to the lower landlord class. This kind of soil cave tomb has been popular for a long time since the Han Dynasty. The new burial system in the Han Dynasty was also manifested in the "hollow brick tombs" in the Central Plains. It was only popular in the Western Han Dynasty and basically disappeared in the Eastern Han Dynasty. Around the middle and late Western Han Dynasty, tombs built with small bricks began to appear in the Central Plains and Guanzhong area, which were generally called "brick-room tombs". By the Eastern Han Dynasty, brick tombs were rapidly popularized and became the most common tombs in all parts of the country. Brick-room tombs of aristocratic bureaucrats are large in scale and complex in structure, and their layout imitates their yamen. Many tombs are painted with colorful murals (see Color Map of Western Han Tombs in Luoyang, Henan, Tomb of Wang Du in Hebei, Tomb of Wang Du in Hebei, Tomb of Linluoer in Inner Mongolia, Picture of Shining City (Part), Tomb of Liangshan in Shandong, Picture of Cars and Horses in Liaoyang, Liaoning). Stone tombs, which began to appear in the late Western Han Dynasty, flourished in some areas in the Eastern Han Dynasty. There are portraits carved in the tomb, so it is called "stone tomb". The structure and layout of the tomb are also imitations of real-life houses. Some stone tombs are painted with colorful murals. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, brick-room tombs in Sichuan were often embedded with another kind of brick, and there were portraits on the walls, which were called "portrait brick tombs". Cliff tombs were popular in all parts of Sichuan since the Eastern Han Dynasty.
The coffins in ancient China were also called burial utensils. After the middle of the Western Han Dynasty, all kinds of tombs with horizontal points, especially the brick-chamber tombs and stone-chamber tombs in the Eastern Han Dynasty, played a role in the tombs themselves, which can be called "brick-chamber" and "stone-chamber", but the funerary utensils in the tombs were coffins-free. In the early and middle period of the Western Han Dynasty, the joint burial of husband and wife still took the form of "separate burial". After the mid-Western Han Dynasty, the system changed, except for the mausoleum, couples were generally buried in the same tomb. The tomb of Hengxue provides convenience for being buried together with the tomb.
Compared with the Warring States period, there are fewer bronzes and more lacquerware in Han tombs. In order to store a lot of food and drinks, there are often many large pottery in the tomb. In the early and middle period of the Western Han Dynasty, it was mainly a practical burial tool. After the mid-Western Han Dynasty, various pottery wares were added, including models such as warehouses, stoves, wells, mills and pavilions, as well as idols such as pigs, dogs and chickens. By the Eastern Han Dynasty, there were more kinds and quantities of funerary wares. This is a great change in the funerary objects of ancient tombs in China. In the tombs of the nobles in the middle of the Western Han Dynasty, there were still horses and chariots as human sacrifices, but only horses and chariots were buried in the tombs, instead of setting up separate pits for horses and chariots near the tombs. After the late Western Han Dynasty, real horses and chariots were no longer used for human sacrifice, but were replaced by wooden or ceramic models. In the south of China, there are also models of wooden boats or pottery boats buried with them (see pictures of painted copper shells (Western Han Dynasty), lacquer boxes, lacquer plates, lacquer cases, lacquer cups, glazed pottery pots, glazed pottery pavilions, painted pottery pots and pottery boats).
In the Han Dynasty, martyrdom was illegal. So in archaeological excavations, with a few exceptions, no human sacrifice has been seen. The cruel system of human sacrifice, which began in Shang Dynasty, basically ended. In "Body Double", wooden figurines and pottery figurines as handmaiden are placed in the tombs of the ruling class in large numbers.
On the ground, the tombs of the ruling class are generally built with mounds. There are often ancestral temples for sacrifice in front of graves. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, it was popular to build stone tombs in front of tombs, with stone statues of people and animals. It is also popular to set up a stone tablet in the cemetery to record the date of death, family lineage and life story of the owner.
The mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor in Lintong, Shaanxi Province is the 1 mausoleum in China. The cemetery is rectangular in plane with double walls inside and outside. The mound is in the south of the cemetery, and the plane is square. There is a sleeping room in the north of the cemetery, which creates a precedent for setting a sleeping room in the mausoleum. In the tombs of the Western Han Dynasty, except for the Baling Department of Wendi, which is "hidden because of the mountains", there are square mounds with overlapping bucket shapes, which are located in the center of the cemetery. The cemetery is square, surrounded by walls, with a "Sima Gate" on each side and a double door outside. Han inherited the Qin system and set up a sleeping hall in the cemetery. The emperors of Han Dynasty were buried together, sharing different tombs. Hou Ling is next to the mausoleum, smaller than the mausoleum. Since the primitive temple was built in Changling during the reign of Hui Di, temples have been built near the cemetery in all the tombs of the Western Han Dynasty. Mausoleum of the Eastern Han Dynasty started from the Fairy World Mausoleum of the Ming Emperor. Instead of building walls around the mausoleum, it was "walking on a horse", and a stone temple was built in front of the grave for sacrifice. Since the celestial mausoleum, no temple has been built near the cemetery (see Qin and Han tombs).
Respondents added that the burial system of 2010-01-3019: 41Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties was generally inherited from the Han Dynasty. However, after the war at the end of the Han Dynasty, the social economy was severely damaged, and the style of reburial of the ruling class had to be changed.
Archaeological investigations and excavations have proved that since the Wei and Jin Dynasties, large-scale and beautifully carved stone tombs are rare. The tombs of aristocratic bureaucrats are generally brick tombs, and sometimes there are stone gates. Compared with Han tombs, the layout of tombs is simplified and the area is reduced. However, there are some new developments in the detailed structure and facilities of the mausoleum. For example, the tomb of the Western Jin Dynasty in Luoyang has corner columns and bucket arches, and the tomb of the Eastern Jin Dynasty in Nanjing has straight windows. From the end of the Han Dynasty to the Wei and Jin Dynasties, coffin beds became popular in tombs. In the gold tombs in the Yangtze River valley, there are sometimes lamp niches and tables. These structures and facilities are made of bricks, which makes the ancient tomb more like a living room in real life. In the Yellow River valley, the brick tomb is very long, and the part near the tomb is a tunnel. As time goes on, the tunnel becomes longer and longer. During the Northern Wei Dynasty, some tombs opened patios at the top of the tunnels, leading directly to the ground. In the late Northern Dynasty, some tombs had tunnels as long as 20 meters and three or four patios. This is an imitation of a real-life house. The more patios, the more doors, the deeper the house and the heavier the yard. During the Wei and Jin Dynasties, most of the big families in remote areas such as Liaodong and Hexi followed the old system of Han Dynasty, built tombs with masonry structure, and painted on the tomb walls and brick surfaces, with similar themes to the murals of Han tombs. In the Central Plains, murals are rarely painted in tombs; But in the Northern Wei Dynasty, murals became popular again. During the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties in the Yangtze River valley, it was popular to decorate the tomb wall with bricks with portraits.
The funerary objects in this period are mainly ceramics such as cups, plates, bowls, pots, fruit boxes and other tableware, as well as daily necessities such as smoking stoves, spittoons and tigers. Its shape often varies from region to region. Some objects exist only in the south and not in the north. Generally speaking, the number of porcelain has soared, especially in the Yangtze River basin. Pottery models such as granary, stove, well and mill, which were popular in Han dynasty, and pottery statues of poultry and livestock are still in use, but they are often small in size and rough in production. The main funerary objects in the tombs of aristocratic bureaucrats are all kinds of pottery figurines. From the Jin Dynasty to the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the later the times, the more types and quantities of figurines. At first, there were a few male and female waiters and warriors. From the period of Five Hu and Sixteen States, there were a large number of cavalry, infantry, civil servants, imperial soldiers and trumpeters. Except for the handmaiden in the house, most of them are the guards of honor when the tomb owner travels. They have obvious military nature, which reflects that rulers everywhere had private armed music at that time. There are hundreds of ritual figurines in Sima Jinlong's tomb in Datong in the early Northern Wei Dynasty and Yuanwa's tomb in Luoyang in the late Northern Wei Dynasty. In the late Northern Wei Dynasty, there were always a pair of particularly tall gatekeepers on both sides of the tomb door. In the south, besides pottery figurines, there are porcelain figurines, but the custom of burial is not as prosperous as that in the north. From the end of the Han Dynasty to the Wei and Jin Dynasties, the ruling class often rode ox carts, which remained unchanged for a long time. During the Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the model of pottery ox cart was often buried in the graves of aristocratic bureaucrats. The etiquette team composed of all kinds of pottery figurines is centered on ox carts. The burial of the pottery "tomb beast" began in the Western Jin Dynasty. There is often only one kind of tomb beast in the tombs of the Western Jin Dynasty, with four legs standing upright. The tomb animals in the tombs of the Northern Wei Dynasty were placed in pairs on both sides of the tomb door, lying in a prone position. In the late Northern Wei Dynasty, two tomb animals in the tomb, one with a face and one with a face, were squatting. Most of the tombs and town tombs of the Eastern Jin Dynasty and the Southern Dynasties in the Yangtze River valley have maintained the shape of the Western Jin Dynasty and lacked changes. During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, epitaphs were built in tombs. Most of the epitaphs in the Jin Dynasty are rectangular, or stone or brick, while the epitaphs in the Western Jin Dynasty discovered earlier in Luoyang are flat, which shows that they evolved from tombstones. It was not until the late Northern Wei Dynasty that the epitaph of Fanggaishi became popular. From then on to the Sui and Tang Dynasties, it was customized. The Yong Tomb of Feng Fangshan, the Empress Dowager of Northern Wei Civilization in Datong, Shanxi Province, and the Wannian Hall of Emperor Xiaowen are the tombs of Northern Wei Dynasty. The tomb is divided into front and back rooms, which shows the special scale of the tomb relative to the single room of the general noble tomb. The stone hall in front of the tomb of Yongguling should have inherited the mausoleum system of the Eastern Han Dynasty. The tombs of the Southern Dynasties are in Nanjing and Danyang, Jiangsu Province. There is a long shinto in front of the mausoleum, with stone beasts, stone pillars and stone tablets on both sides. The tombs are all single rooms, and there are large portraits such as "Seven Sages of Bamboo Forest" and "White Tiger" and "Lion", which are made of molded brick (see the tombs of molded brick in Nanjing area). Compared with the popular style of applying color murals in tombs in the Northern Dynasties, it shows the characteristics of tombs in the Southern Dynasties in terms of tomb decoration.
In the northern region, which was dominated by the Yellow River valley in the Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties, the burial system began in the Northern Wei Dynasty, and after the Sui Dynasty, it came down in one continuous line as for the prosperous Tang Dynasty. At that time, the tombs of aristocratic bureaucrats were all inclined tombs, including a long tunnel with a patio at the top and niches on both walls. There are 7 patios and 8 niches in Prince Yide's tomb, 4 patios and 6 niches in Prince Zhang Huai's tomb, and 3 patios and 2 niches in Li Shuang's tomb of Taichangbo in the third period. The number of patios and niches is basically consistent with the official title of the tomb owner. Earth caves were popular in Sui Dynasty, and the graves of senior bureaucrats were no exception. After entering the Tang Dynasty, brick rooms were mostly used, and soil cave tomb was reduced to a low-level official or a civilian. Ordinary bureaucrats, their graves are all single rooms. In addition to the main room, senior officials at or above two levels sometimes have a simple front hall. Li Renzhi's Tomb, Prince Zhang Huai's Tomb, Prince Yide's Tomb and Princess Yongtai's Tomb all have two rooms. From the early Tang Dynasty to the prosperous Tang Dynasty, murals were very popular in the tombs of nobles and bureaucrats. Generally, dragons and white tigers are painted on the two walls in front of the tomb, and the sun, moon and stars are painted on the top of the tomb. Others include pommel horses, camels, ox carts, halberds, hikers, officials, waiters and waitresses, musicians and dancers. , painted in the corresponding parts of the tomb, its content and specifications vary with the identity of the tomb owner.
The funerary objects are mainly pottery figurines. From about the Wu Zhou period, pottery figurines began to use tricolor glaze more. Pottery figurines can be divided into two categories: guards when traveling and servants and waiters at home. The former had more armed figurines from Sui Dynasty to early Tang Dynasty, and then gradually decreased. Tall horse figurines and camel figurines appeared in the Wu and Zhou Dynasties. The latter has been increasing from the early Tang Dynasty to the prosperous Tang Dynasty, and both musical and dancing figurines and wandering figurines belong to this category. Influenced by Buddhism, a pair of warrior figurines guarding the tomb door evolved into heavenly king figurines in the prosperous Tang Dynasty, characterized by crouching animals or hiding ghosts. The tomb beast inherited the shape since the late Northern Wei Dynasty, one was a human face and the other was an animal face, and further evolved into a monster with horns on its head, wings on its shoulders or snakes in its hands in the Wu and Zhou Dynasties. The first figurines of man and beast at twelve o'clock in Sui Dynasty were more popular in Kaiyuan and Tianbao periods. The number of pottery figurines varies with the identity of the tomb owner; The total number of pottery figurines in Prince Yide's tomb is as many as 1000. A square epitaph with a covered stone was more commonly used in the Tang Dynasty. The size of the epitaph is graded according to the identity of the owner. For example, the epitaphs of third-level officials are mostly about 72 cm square, while those of first-level officials such as Yang Sixu, Prince Zhang Huai, Wang Yongxian and Wang Chengliren are all 88 cm square, and the epitaph of Princess Yongtai is the largest, with 1 14 cm square. Prince Yide, like the son of heaven, used jade books instead of epitaphs.
After the Anshi Rebellion, great changes have taken place in the tomb system in the Tang Dynasty. First of all, the tomb structure is simplified, and the short and narrow axial pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid mound has disappeared. The scale of the mausoleum has been reduced and murals are very rare. The number of pottery figurines decreased and sketches were made. The figurines of heavenly kings and the beasts of town tombs are becoming more and more simplified, and some tombs are no longer used. Only the figurine at twelve o'clock is still popular.
There are two kinds of tombs in the Tang Dynasty in the vast area south of the Yangtze River, namely, the tomb with vertical holes and pits and the tomb with brick chambers, which are simple in shape and small in scale. Brick tombs are mostly rectangular, and some have two rooms side by side, and husband and wife are buried in one room. Zhang Jiuling's tomb in Shaoguan, Guangdong, has a square main room and painted walls. There are two ear rooms on both sides of the front porch, which is large in scale and similar in shape to brick tombs in northern China. Generally speaking, most of the funerary objects in the tombs of the Tang Dynasty in southern China are ceramic utensils, and there are few pottery figurines.
Except for a few tombs in the Tang Dynasty, most of them were built by mountains. Tang Gaozong and Wu Zetian were buried together in Ganling, centering on the main peak of Liangshan, and built an inner city with a slightly square plane, with a door on each side, and stone lions, horses and figures outside. Zhuquemen in the south is the main entrance, and the entrance is the sacrifice hall. From the first gate in the far south to Zhuquemen in the inner city, it is 3 kilometers long, and there are stone statues of birds, beasts, horses, military commanders, civil servants and foreign leaders on both sides, as well as a "holy record" monument and a "wordless monument". The grand scale of Ganling fully shows the great national strength in the heyday of the Tang Dynasty (see Tang Ling).
Five Dynasties ago, the Yong Ling of Shu Wang Jian was excavated in Chengdu, Sichuan, and the Qin Mausoleum Li of the Southern Tang Dynasty and the Shunling of Li Jing were all excavated in Nanjing, Jiangsu (see the former Shu Tomb and the Second Mausoleum of the Southern Tang Dynasty). The underground Xuan Palace is divided into three rooms: the front room, the middle room and the back room. There are many niches or ear rooms on both sides of each room, which may be inherited from the system of the Tang Mausoleum. Although the underground Gong Xuan in the Tang Mausoleum has not been excavated, it is inferred from various aspects that there should be three rooms: front, middle and back.
From the Song Dynasty to the Ming Dynasty, the most distinctive tombs of the Northern Song Dynasty in the Central Plains and northern regions were brick tombs with imitation wood structures. In the early years of the Northern Song Dynasty, the imitation wood structure in the tomb was still very simple. It was not until the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty that it reached a mature level, thus becoming a special type of brick tomb. Since then, the plane of the tomb has evolved from a square or a circle to an equilateral polygon, and the imitation wood structure has evolved from a simple "one bucket with three liters" to a five-paved coffin, and from a straight window to a carved lattice door. Generally, it is a single-chamber tomb, and the larger tombs in the later period are divided into two chambers. Most of the tombs are decorated with murals or carved bricks, which mainly show the daily life of the tomb owner, especially the scene of the "Yan Fang" held by the couple (see the mural painting of Baisha Song Tomb in Yuxian County, Henan Province: the banquet picture is the picture), and sometimes there are filial son story pictures. In some tombs in the late Northern Song Dynasty, there were also zaju carved bricks. On the back wall of the tomb, there are often carved bricks of the "female door". There are few funerary objects, probably because all kinds of objects have been fully painted and carved on murals and carved bricks.
The tombs of the Song Dynasty in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River are similar to those of the Tang Dynasty in the same area. In addition to the vertical hole pit tomb, it is mainly a simple rectangular brick tomb, and often two rooms are juxtaposed, and the husband and wife are buried together in one room. Besides ceramics, there are quite a few funerary objects, such as lacquerware and bronze mirrors, and occasionally silverware. In Song tombs in Jiangxi, Fujian and other places, there are pottery figurines buried with them, including twelve-hour figurines and magic figurines. In addition to brick tombs, stone tombs are also popular in Song tombs in Sichuan. The latter are mostly carved with the theme of "opening a fragrant banquet" by the host and his wife, while others are stories of filial sons.
The Mausoleum of the Northern Song Dynasty is located in Gongxian County, Henan Province, and the site selection is strictly in accordance with the requirements of Feng Shui theory. The tombs are the same in shape, all centered on earth tombs, surrounded by a square tomb surrounded by walls, and there is a memorial hall in front of the tomb. There are sacred gates on all sides, and there are stone lions in front of them. In the southernmost part, there are two tulou, called Quetai and Milk Terrace respectively. Stone statues such as elephants, horses, tigers, sheep, ambassadors, civil servants and warriors are arranged on both sides of Shinto from the chest to the South Shenmen. There is a back mausoleum behind the mausoleum, which is similar to the Han mausoleum, but it is unique among the tombs since the Tang Dynasty (see Song Ling in Gongxian County). The mausoleum of the Southern Song Dynasty is near Shaoxing, Zhejiang. Because it is being buried, it is relatively simple to build, and it is called "Saving the Palace". Although it generally followed the mausoleum system of the Northern Song Dynasty, there were no platforms, elephants, tombs and four gates. After the dedication, it will be made into a mysterious palace and the body will be placed in a tight and solid "hidden stone".
Liao tombs distributed in North China, Inner Mongolia and Northeast China have the characteristics of Qidan nationality. Besides square tombs, circular tombs are also very popular. Generally, it is a single tomb, but there are also two rooms before and after the noble tomb with higher status. The tombs of Liao Xuma in Chifeng and Zhao Dejun, King of Qi in Beijing, have three chambers, namely, front, middle and back, and there are many ear chambers, showing the characteristics of "multi-chamber". Sometimes there are simple wooden structures in the tomb, and colorful paintings are painted. In addition to wooden coffins, sarcophagus is also very popular among burial utensils. Some tombs are painted with felt tents and sarcophagus grazing, reflecting the nomadic life of the Khitan people. In the late Liao Dynasty, tombs with octagonal or hexagonal planes began to appear. This period was more influenced by the tombs of the Northern Song Dynasty. Especially in the tombs of Han people, some are decorated with brick carved tables and chairs in brick rooms with imitation wood structure, while others draw "Yan Fang" and filial piety stories in murals, similar to the tombs of the Northern Song Dynasty.
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